The Business of Dark Tourism: The Management of Dark Tourism Visitor Sites and Attractions with Special Reference to Innovation Submitted by: Donna Maria Poade To the University of Exeter As a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management Studies March 2017 This thesis is available for library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in the thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has been previously submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. …………………………………………………………… Abstract This study explores the management of visitor sites and attractions associated with death, disaster and suffering, commonly referred to in the literature as ‘dark tourism’. Although gaining increasing academic attention, the supply-side perspective of dark tourism is poorly understood with scarce empirical evidence relating to management operations and practices. This may be due to management operations and practices that are perceived to conflict with the sensitive themes of visitor sites associated with dark tourism. Particular consideration is given to the management concept of innovation identified as a significant gap for scholarly exploration. Qualitative semi-structured interviews were carried out with senior management at 23 sites and attractions across the United Kingdom associated with dark tourism. The findings reveal that, contrary to suggestions that dark tourism sites may be restrictive in management practices, a wide array of innovative activities and marketing practices are widely conducted and innovation was viewed as a stimuli for repeat visitation. Furthermore, management operations are viewed as facilitating important stories of trauma for present and future generations. Omission of these stories would belittle the tragic circumstances in which people associated with the sites had died or suffered. Moreover, managers at dark tourism sites acknowledged the ethical and moral tensions surrounding management practices at dark tourism sites. Indeed, the majority of managers adopted both highly ethical processes resulting in ethical innovations and complex consultation processes in order to mitigate any potential concerns from stakeholders. The ethical stance underpinning operations positions the phenomenon of dark tourism as a subset within the tourism sector, distinct from its counterparts. Recommendations include calls to widen the study to explore visitor perceptions of innovative measures undertaken by managers, and to focus on specific commercial aspects, such as retailing, within the business of dark tourism. ii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ............................................................................................... iii List of Tables .................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ..................................................................................................... ix List of Appendices .............................................................................................. x List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 1 1.1. Research Context: The Business of Dark Tourism ...................................... 1 1.2. Aim and Objectives of the Research ........................................................... 5 1.3. Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER TWO – CASTING LIGHT ON DARK TOURISM ............................. 12 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 12 2.1.1. Definitions: Casting Light on Dark Tourism ......................................... 13 2.1.2. A Taxonomy of Dark Tourism ............................................................. 15 2.2. Dark Tourism Research Activity ................................................................ 16 2.2.1. Consuming Dark Tourism – Demand-Side Research Activity ............. 17 2.2.2. Purveyors of Dark Tourism –Supply-Side Research Activity .............. 25 2.2.3. The Holistic Approach –Supply and Demand Research Activity ......... 33 2.3. Summary ................................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER THREE - THE BUSINESS OF DARK TOURISM ........................... 39 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 39 3.1.1. The Concept of Innovation .................................................................. 40 3.1.2. A Taxonomy of Innovation Categories ................................................ 43 3.2. Innovation Research Activity ..................................................................... 44 3.2.1. A Classical Approach to Innovation .................................................... 45 3.2.2. A Tourism-Based Approach to Innovation .......................................... 46 iii 3.3. Marketing ................................................................................................... 56 3.4. Visitor Interpretation .................................................................................. 59 3.5. Summary ................................................................................................... 66 CHAPTER FOUR - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................... 69 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 69 4.2. The Governing Principles of this Research ............................................... 70 4.2.1. Pragmatism ......................................................................................... 71 4.2.2. Quality Criteria .................................................................................... 73 4.2.3. Research Ethics .................................................................................. 74 4.3. Selection of Data Collection Methods ........................................................ 76 4.3.1. Telephone interviews .......................................................................... 77 4.4. Sampling Strategy ..................................................................................... 79 4.4.1 Sample Size ......................................................................................... 81 4.4.2. Demographic Characteristics .............................................................. 82 4.4.3. Respondent Profiles............................................................................ 87 4.5. Data Collection – Fieldwork ....................................................................... 87 4.5.1. Negotiating Access ............................................................................. 88 4.5.2. Interviewing ‘Elites’ ............................................................................. 91 4.5.3. Interview Protocol ............................................................................... 92 4.5.4. Piloting ................................................................................................ 93 4.6. Data Capture and Analysis ........................................................................ 94 4.6.1. Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 95 4.6.2. Coding ................................................................................................ 96 4.6.3. Thematic Analysis ............................................................................... 99 4.6.4. Framework Analysis ............................................................................ 99 4.7. ‘Emotional Methodologies’ ....................................................................... 102 4.8. Summary ................................................................................................. 106 CHAPTER FIVE - DARK TOURISM INNOVATION ....................................... 109 iv 5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 109 5.2. Defining Innovation .................................................................................. 110 5.3. Perceptions of Innovation ........................................................................ 113 5.4. Practices of Innovation ............................................................................ 114 5.4.1. Co-innovation .................................................................................... 122 5.4.2. Innovation and Repeat Visitation ...................................................... 123 5.5. Determinants of Innovation ...................................................................... 125 5.6. Inhibitors of Innovation ............................................................................ 131 5.6.1. Structural Factors.............................................................................. 131 5.6.2. Behavioural Factors .........................................................................