Traffic enforcement in Europe: effects, measures, needs and future Final report of the ESCAPE consortium The “Escape” Project Contract Nº: RO-98-RS.3047 Project Coordinator: Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) Communities and Infrastructure Partners: Bundesanstalt für Strassenwesen (BASt) Institut National de Recherche sur les Transports et leur Sécurité (INRETS) Kuratorium für Verkehrssicherheit (KfV) Institute for Road Safety Research (SWOV) The Institute of Traffic Planning and Traffic Engineering (TUW-IVV) Institute of Transport Economics (TØI) University of Groningen (RUG) Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH) Centrum Dopravniho Vyzkumu S.A. (CDV) Authors: Tapani Mäkinen, David M. Zaidel & Gunnar Andersson, Marie-Berthe Biecheler-Fretel, Rainer Christ, Jean-Pierre Cauzard, Rune Elvik, Charles Goldenbeld, Christhard Gelau, Jelle Heidstra, Marie-Chantal Jayet, Göran Nilsson, Panos Papaioanou, Allan Quimby, Vlasta Rehnova and Truls Vaa Date: April 2003 PROJECT FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION UNDER THE TRANSPORT RTD PROGRAMME OF THE 4TH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME Traffic enforcement in Europe: Tapani Mäkinen, David M. Zaidel et al. effects, measures, needs and future December 2002 SUMMARY The objectives of the project were to identify important issues of traffic law enforce- ment in the EU, examine traditional and innovative enforcement approaches and tools, and assess their potential to improve compliance for increased safety on roads. The fol- lowing main issues were addressed: the extent of non-compliance with traffic laws and its contribution to accidents; how enforcement is organised and carried out in practice in EU countries; traffic law enforcement needs, issues and constraints, old and new; the potential for new approaches, technologies and tools to improve compliance through more efficient enforcement. Emphasis was put on speeding, drink driving, non-use of personal safety devices and “aggressive” driving. The project focused more on the policing function as compared to legal functions. The analysis was largely qualitative because of the complexity of the systems, their intricate social context, and lack of reliable quantitative data in many countries. Attention was also given to organisational and legal issues of the system and not only to policing tactics and the behaviours targeted for enforcement. Other foci were anticipated enforcement issues in a larger, more integrated and even more motorised EU, and the special needs of CEE countries. In examining new approaches and tools, the following were specifically considered: the potential of automated camera systems for enforcement of speeding and other violations the possible role of non-police organisations in enforcement, the necessity for monitor- ing tools, the application of a cost benefit analysis tool to enforcement, and the extent of professional and public support to various traffic enforcement practices and initiatives. One of the leading guidelines of the project was to address traffic law enforcement is- sues at a practical level and to propose potential solutions with a good chance of being accepted by enforcement professionals. There is clear public support for existing traffic legislation in the four focus areas of speeding, alcohol, belts, and young drivers as well as effectively enforcing them. Con- sidering the traffic system as a whole, including the role and resources of the police, it is clear that enforcement based on very high subjective detection probabilities only, will not be able to achieve even on a satisfactory level the compliance of all traffic rules. There are currently available systems that can be used directly preventively without the fear of punishment such as speed limiters. Moreover, the use of such “directly preven- tive” systems can be realised with much lower costs than extensive monitoring systems requiring manpower even when fully automated. Only by realising that traffic enforcement is a part of integrated traffic safety work, where the whole system must be developed, can unnecessary pressures and unrealistic expectations concerning the impacts of enforcement be avoided. The use of new tech- nologies in traffic safety work in both assisting and controlling road user behaviour also serve this purpose well. 3 Traffic enforcement in Europe: Tapani Mäkinen, David M. Zaidel et al. effects, measures, needs and future December 2002 FOREWORD The project was funded by the European Commission under the transport RTD pro- gramme of 4th framework programme. The final report is naturally largely based on the work carried out in separate work packages. However, some additional work independent of work packages was carried out when writing the final report, especially concerning the behavioural foundations of traffic enforcement by the police, and the needs of enforcement from different perspec- tives. Tapani Mäkinen and David Zaidel are mainly responsible for writing the final report, the former for the structure of the report and chapters 1, 2, 3 and 5; the latter for the summary and conclusions and other parts of the report. In addition, the work of the fol- lowing persons contributed to the final report: Chapter 1: Marie-Berthe Biecheler-Fretel & Marie-Chantal Jayet, Chapter 3: Rune Elvik & Truls Vaa, Chapter 4: Jean-Pierre Cauzard, Rainer Christ, Charles Goldenbeld, Jelle Heidstra & Allan Quimby, Chapter 5: Rainer Christ, Vlasta Rehnova & Panos Papaioanou, Chapter 6: Gunnar Andersson, Reiner Christ, Christhard Gelau & Göran Nilsson, Chapter 7: Jean-Pierre Cauzard & Allan Quimby. 5 Traffic enforcement in Europe: Tapani Mäkinen, David M. Zaidel et al. effects, measures, needs and future December 2002 CONTENTS SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 3 FOREWORD ............................................................................................................... 5 PARTNERSHIP ........................................................................................................... 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................... 11 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 21 1.1 Objectives of ESCAPE.................................................................................... 21 1.2 Traffic behaviour regulation ............................................................................ 22 1.3 Uniformity in European legislation: the cases for speeding and drink driving .. 25 2 FROM LEGISLATION TO COMPLIANCE ......................................................... 27 2.1 Compliance model........................................................................................... 27 2.2 Deterrence....................................................................................................... 28 2.3 Subjective risk of detection.............................................................................. 29 2.4 Sanctions......................................................................................................... 30 3 EVALUATION OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT........................................ 33 3.1 Effects of traffic law violations on safety......................................................... 33 3.2 Effects of traffic law enforcement on driver behaviour .................................... 40 3.3 Effects of traffic law enforcement on accidents ............................................... 44 3.4 Enforcement priorities and uniformity ............................................................. 48 4 TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT AS A SAFETY MEASURE ........................... 53 4.1 Role of legal measures and enforcement in safety work................................... 53 4.2 Areas of traffic behaviour currently enforced................................................... 56 4.3 Traffic policing in practice .............................................................................. 61 4.4 Views of practitioners...................................................................................... 66 4.5 Non-police based enforcement ........................................................................ 68 4.6 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 73 7 Traffic enforcement in Europe: Tapani Mäkinen, David M. Zaidel et al. effects, measures, needs and future December 2002 5 NEEDS FOR LEGAL MEASURES AND ENFORCEMENT................................ 75 5.1 Drivers’ needs ................................................................................................. 75 5.2 Needs from practitioners’ point of view........................................................... 78 5.3 Societal needs.................................................................................................. 89 5.4 European needs ............................................................................................... 92 6 IMPROVING LEGAL MEASURES AND TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................. 96 6.1 Legal systems.................................................................................................. 96 6.2 Conventional enforcement............................................................................... 97 6.3 Automated