Università degli Studi di Padova Dipartimento di Studi Linguistici e Letterari Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Lingue Moderne per la Comunicazione e la Cooperazione Internazionale Classe LM-38 Tesi di Laurea A sociolinguistic study of UK varieties of English: a case study of Liverpool English Relatore Laureanda Prof. Fiona Clare Dalziel Giada Perini n° matr.1133335 / LMLCC Anno Accademico 2016 / 2017 To the city of Liverpool and its people, who reminded me what I stand for. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 CHAPTER 1 – SOCIOLINGUISTIC THEORY APPLIED TO LIVERPOOL ENGLISH 9 1.1 SOCIOLINGUISTICS 9 1.2 LANGUAGE IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS 11 1.2.1 DIALECTS 11 1.3 LANGUAGE AND TERRITORY 12 1.3.1 SCOUSE AND LIVERPOOL 15 1.4 LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY 19 1.4.1 SONIC GEOGRAPHY 21 1.4.2 SCOUSE AND SCOUSERS 24 1.5 LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL STATUS 25 1.5.1 LIVERPOOL ENGLISH SPEAKERS AND THEIR EXTERNALLY-PERCEIVED IDENTITY 28 CHAPTER 2 – VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN THE UK: A LINGUISTIC APPROACH 33 2.1 STANDARD ENGLISH 33 2.2 VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 36 2.3 NORTHERN ENGLAND VARIETIES 41 2.4 LIVERPOOL ENGLISH (SCOUSE) 44 2.4.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 44 2.4.1.1 A DIACHRONIC APPROACH 45 2.4.1.2 THE TERM SCOUSE 47 2.4.2 A SYNCHRONIC APPROACH 48 2.4.3 CONCLUSIONS AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS 52 1 CHAPTER 3 – A CASE STUDY OF LIVERPOOL ENGLISH 55 3.1 METHODOLOGY 55 3.2 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONS 61 3.3 METHODOLOGY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS (THEMATIC ANALYSIS) 83 3.3.1 THEMES IDENTIFICATION 84 3.3.2 THEME 1 – ACCENT 86 3.3.3 THEME 2 – COMPREHENSION PROBLEMS 87 3.3.4 THEME 3 – NEGATIVE ATTITUDES 89 3.3.4.1 THEME 3.1 – MEDIA 90 3.3.5 THEME 4 – IDENTITY 92 3.3.5.1 THEME 4.1 – COMMUNITY 94 3.3.5.2 THEME 4.2 – QUALITIES AND VALUES 96 3.3.5.3 THEME 4.3 – HUMOUR 97 3.3.5.4 THEME 4.4 – PRIDE 99 CONCLUSION 101 REFERENCES 107 APPENDIX 1 – DATA OBTAINED FROM THE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS AND FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEWS 115 APPENDIX 2 – ITALIAN SUMMARY 123 2 INTRODUCTION According to scholars, “sociolinguistics is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a social and cultural phenomenon” (Trudgill, 2000: 21); in other words, it investigates the connection between language and culture, but it is also “the study of language in relation to society” (Hudson 1980: I). As the name suggests, it deals with linguistics in relation to a great number of “socially relevant forces and facts” (Spolsky, 1998: 4), such as gender, sexuality, ethnicity, social class, social status, place and region. As for the present dissertation, I will be taking into account the relationship that language has with place, identity and social status according to the theory of sociolinguistics. First of all, sociolinguistically speaking, it is believed that language is closely connected to territory, as “sociolinguists have always been concerned with place […] and geography has often entered into explanations of variation” (Johnstone, 2011: 203). This is true, for instance, when it comes to national hymns, as they link language to nation, or when a certain language appears as the official language of a certain state/nation/region, or simply when it comes to state where a language originates from. In this regard, on the basis of the idea that “language chang[e] in different ways in different places” (Trudgill, 2000: 147), linguistic maps have been created in order to make this bond explicit on the basis of geopolitics, that is to say, languages have been linked to places. This dissertation will take into account the linguistic map of the United Kingdom, leading to the analysis of the varieties of English, which apparently confirm the strong union between languages and their originating places. Regarding the connection between language and identity, it is worth mentioning that “identity is many things”, and therefore, “there is a tremendous amount of literature on identity, distributed over several social-scientific disciplines” (Blommaert, 2005: 204). Among these social-scientific disciplines, sociolinguistics makes its appearance fostering the concept of “sonic geography” (Matless, 2005), according to which, “sound, in this instance a distinctive accent and/or dialect, affects the construction of local identity” (Boland, 2010). In other words, according to sociolinguistics, language is not just a mere 3 means of communication, but it actually contributes to the building of one’s identity. Furthermore, since it is believed that “speakers produce and reproduce particular identities through their language use” (Bucholtz and hall, 2004: 369), language may also be considered as a means through which identities are performed and displayed. Therefore, it is believed that language is what enables communication within society and it actually helps the generation of identity by sharing values and cultures in order to create communities based on them. That is to say, according to sociolinguistics, language shapes identity and, in this regard, this dissertation will present the literature supporting this theory. Clearly, “whenever we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origins” (Trudgill, 2000: 2) and this seems to be true as concerns the links taken into consideration so far. In other words, it might be said that the way we speak could tell our interlocutors where we are from, and therefore, a part of our identity might be disclosed. In this regard, Elinor Ochs (1992) talks about “indexicality” and “notes that linguistic structures become associated with social categories”, meaning that, through interaction, linguistics become linked to society. This last point leads to the sociolinguistic idea that varieties of languages are not only geographically classified, but also socially classified, and therefore, the way we speak could reveal our social status. As it is the case for this dissertation, this bond between language and social status will be further analysed. However, although the sociolinguistic theory which has been seen so far does actually present a certain level of strength, I would argue that some flaws are present as well. As a matter of fact, I would say that language does have a relationship with territory, but the latter is far from being a homogeneous entity, and therefore, this might weaken the connection with language. Furthermore, it has been said that language shapes identity, but it has also been said that “identity is many things” (Blommaert, 2005: 204), and therefore, it is not clear how much language is actually relevant in the field of identity. Last but not least, although it might be true that languages are socially classified, and therefore, people can detect speakers’ social status, it is not clear what basis this social classification stands on. In other words, it is not clear whether this classification is reliable or not. 4 In order to analyse these potential flaws in the sociolinguistic theory, this dissertation is based on three main research questions. The first one regards the importance of territory in relation to language, and therefore, the sociolinguistic link between language and place will be investigated in order to understand whether it is as straightforward as it appears. The second research question takes into consideration the significance of languages in the field of one’s identity, meaning that this dissertation will try to understand whether linguistic identity plays a relevant role within society. Last, but not least, the third question is concerned with the social classification of languages, that is to say, I will investigate this point in order to understand what this social classification relies on. In order to answer the research questions mentioned above, I will use a case-study approach based on the Liverpool English (LE) variety, which “is the variety of English spoken in Liverpool and much of the surrounding county of Merseyside, in the north- west of England” (Watson, 2007: 351). As a matter of fact, I will first present the sociolinguistic theory and I will try to apply it to the LE variety in order to see whether it appears relevant when transferred to a concrete case and its environment. As some flaws are detected, I will try to use a linguistic approach in order to answer the questions arising; finally, I will try to give some answers by analysing the data obtained from the case study. The latter, as already mentioned, is based on the Liverpool English variety and it was conducted as a questionnaire for survey research supplemented by short face-to-face interviews. As matter of fact, in five months, from November 2016 to March 2017, I developed and delivered a questionnaire for Liverpool English speakers. Furthermore, taking advantage of the fact that I was living in Liverpool, I carried out some short face- to-face interviews as well, so that I could fill some gaps in the study. Overall, 178 Liverpool English speakers completed the questionnaire and I was able to carry out five short interviews with five LE speakers. The data obtained will be studied through both a quantitative and a qualitative analysis method, and they will be displayed through graphs; when necessary, some answers the participants gave will be reported. Regarding the structure of this dissertation, it will be divided into main three sections. The first one (chapter 1) will deal mainly with sociolinguistic theory; it will explore the 5 role of language in sociolinguistics, and in particular, its role in relation to territory, identity and social status. As already mentioned, the literature will be then applied to the concrete case of Liverpool English (or Scouse) variety in order to see whether it fully explains the reality.