Local case-marking in Kalasha Jan Heegård Petersen PhD thesis June 2006 Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics University of Copenhagen Supervisors: Prof. Michael Fortescue and Birgit Anette Rasmussen. CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... VII ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................................IX TRANSCRIPTION NOTES ........................................................................................................XI LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................... XII LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................XIII 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 A DATA-DRIVEN THESIS ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 CASE-MARKING AND CASE MARKERS ............................................................................ 2 1.3 LOCAL CASE-MARKING AND SPATIAL GRAMMAR........................................................... 3 1.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CASE-MARKING SYSTEM......................................................... 4 1.5 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS................................................................................................. 4 2. THE KALASHA PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGE .................................................. 7 2.1 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING ........................................................................................ 7 2.2 THE MACRO-SOCIOLINGUISTIC SETTING......................................................................... 7 2.2.1 The Kalasha valleys ................................................................................................. 7 2.2.2 The Hindu Kush language area ............................................................................... 8 2.2 KALASHA MODE OF LIFE AND RELIGION......................................................................... 9 2.3 THE HISTORY OF THE KALASHA................................................................................... 10 2.4 KALASHA DIALECTS .................................................................................................... 11 2.5 THE FUTURE OF KALASHA ........................................................................................... 12 3. PREVIOUS LINGUSTIC RESEARCH ON KALASHA ............................................... 15 3.1 THE PIONEERS.............................................................................................................. 15 3.2 GEORG MORGENSTIERNE ............................................................................................ 15 3.3 LINGUISTIC RESEARCH ON KALASHA IN THE LATE 20TH CENTURY................................ 16 3.3.1 Ron Trail and Greg Cooper................................................................................... 16 3.3.2 Elena Bashir .......................................................................................................... 17 3.3.3 Ida E. Mørch and Jan Heegård Petersen............................................................... 18 3.4 OTHER LINGUISTIC DATA ON KALASHA ....................................................................... 18 3.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 18 4. THE TERM ‘DARDIC’..................................................................................................... 21 4.1 THE INITIAL ASSUMPTIONS .......................................................................................... 21 4.2 THE DARDIC ACCOUNT GETS SETTLED......................................................................... 22 4.3 THE DARDIC CASE REOPENED...................................................................................... 24 4.4 DARDIC AND THE PRESENT STUDY ............................................................................... 25 5. A SKETCH OF KALASHA ............................................................................................... 27 5.1 PHONOLOGICAL SKETCH.............................................................................................. 27 5.1.1 Consonants............................................................................................................. 27 5.1.2 Vowels.................................................................................................................... 28 5.2 GRAMMATICAL SKETCH............................................................................................... 29 5.2.1 Morphology............................................................................................................ 29 5.2.1.1 Nominal ............................................................................................................................ 29 5.2.1.2 Verbal ............................................................................................................................... 30 i 5.2.1.2.1 Non-finite forms ...................................................................................................30 5.2.1.2.2 Finite forms ..........................................................................................................31 5.2.1.2.3 Inferentiality and actuality ....................................................................................32 5.2.1.2.4 Transitivity-causativity (and volitionality) ...........................................................32 5.2.2 Basic syntax ............................................................................................................ 33 5.2.2.1 Word order......................................................................................................................... 33 5.2.2.2 Object-marking..................................................................................................................33 5.2.2.3 Complement structures ...................................................................................................... 35 6. DATA, METHODS AND LINGUISTIC FIELDWORK................................................ 37 6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 37 6.2 METHODS FOR ELICITING DATA ................................................................................... 38 6.3 THE DATA .................................................................................................................... 39 6.3 ELICITATION WORK ..................................................................................................... 41 6.4 TEXTS AND SPONTANEOUS MATERIAL ......................................................................... 43 6.5 USING EXPERIMENTAL STIMULI ................................................................................... 45 6.6 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 46 7. POLYSEMY AND SEMANTIC NETWORKS............................................................... 47 7.1 APPROACHING POLYSEMY ........................................................................................... 47 7.2 SEMANTIC NETWORKS ................................................................................................. 48 7.2.1 The concept of a network ....................................................................................... 48 7.2.1 The conceptual bias of semantic networks............................................................. 49 7.2.2 The diachronic pitfall of semantic networks .......................................................... 49 7.2.3 Avoiding the pitfalls ............................................................................................... 50 8. LOCAL CASE-MARKING IN KALASHA IN OVERVIEW........................................ 51 9. OVERVIEW OF CASE ENDINGS IN KALASHA........................................................ 53 9.1 COMMON NOUNS ......................................................................................................... 53 9.1.1 The nominative singular......................................................................................... 54 9.1.2 The singular genitive-oblique -as........................................................................... 55 9.1.2.1 Etymology and pronunciation........................................................................................... 55 9.1.2.2 Functions of genitive-oblique singular -as........................................................................ 55 9.1.3 Plural marking on common nouns ......................................................................... 56 9.1.3.1 Nominative plural -an and -án.......................................................................................... 56 9.1.3.2 Oblique plural -an and -ón................................................................................................ 58 9.1.3.2.1 Is the -an ~ -ón alternation a result of accent placement in Vedic?.......................58 9.1.3.3 Reduplication, plurality and moreness.............................................................................. 61 9.1.4 Instrumental -an...................................................................................................