American University International Law Review Volume 22 | Issue 4 Article 5 2007 Challenges to Maritime Interception Operations in the War on Terror: Bridging the Gap Sandra L. Hodgkinson Edward Cook Thomas Fichter Christian Fleming Jonathan Shapiro See next page for additional authors Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/auilr Part of the International Law Commons Recommended Citation Hodgkinson, Sandra L. et al. "Challenges to Maritime Interception Operations in the War on Terror: Bridging the Gap." American University International Law Review 22, no. 4 (2007): 583-671. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Washington College of Law Journals & Law Reviews at Digital Commons @ American University Washington College of Law. It has been accepted for inclusion in American University International Law Review by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ American University Washington College of Law. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Authors Sandra L. Hodgkinson, Edward Cook, Thomas Fichter, Christian Fleming, Jonathan Shapiro, Jon Mellis, Brandon Boutelle, Stephen Sarnoski, and Gregory P. Noone This article is available in American University International Law Review: http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/auilr/vol22/ iss4/5 CHALLENGES TO MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS IN THE WAR ON TERROR: BRIDGING THE GAP SANDRA L. HODGKINSON EDWARD COOK THOMAS FICHTER CHRISTIAN FLEMING JONATHAN SHAPIRO JON MELLIS BRANDON BOUTELLE STEPHEN SARNOSKI GREGORY P. NOONE* The authors are currently assigned to Navy Reserve Civil Law Support Activity 104, which is the reserve unit that supports the Office of the Judge Advocate General, United States Navy, International and Operational Law Division, in Washington D.C. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Government, the Department of States, the Department of Defense, the United States Navy, or any other governmental or nongovernmental entity. All information obtained for this article was gathered through open sources or unclassified interviews and briefings. Lieutenant Commander Sandra L. Hodgkinson (JAGC, USN; J.D., University of Denver School of Law, 1995; M.A., Graduate School of International Studies, University of Denver, 1995; B.A., Tulane University, 1992) is the Deputy for War Crimes Issues at the U.S. State Department. 584 AM. U. INT'L L. REv. [22:583 IN TR O D U C TIO N ........................................................................... 587 I. LAW OF THE SEA PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE BOARDING OF VESSELS UNDER THE FLAG OF A FO REIG N STA TE ................................................................ 590 A. FREEDOM OF NAVIGATION AND EXCEPTIONS TO EXCLUSIVE FLAG STATE JURISDICTION, INCLUDING Commander Edward J. Cook (JAGC, USN; J.D., University of Virginia School of Law, 1989; A.B., College of William and Mary, 1986) is an attorney with the United States Department of Homeland Security. Commander Thomas Fichter (JAGC, USN; J.D., Seton Hall Law School, 1990; B.S., Fordham University, 1987) is a Monmouth County Assistant Prosecutor in Freehold, New Jersey assigned to the Special Prosecutions Unit. Lieutenant Commander Christian P. Fleming (JAGC, USN; J.D., Rutgers University School of Law - Newark, 1996; B.A., Gettysburg College, 1993) is a partner with Jabin & Fleming in East Brunswick, New Jersey. Lieutenant Commander Jonathan I. Shapiro (JAGC, USN; J.D., Georgetown University Law Center, 1994; B.A., University of Michigan, 1989) is a Senior Institutional Integrity Officer for the Department of Institutional Integrity in the World Bank Group. Lieutenant Commander Jon Mellis (JAGC, USN; J.D., Vanderbilt University Law School, 1995; B.A., The Johns Hopkins University, 1992) is an Assistant General Counsel with the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Lieutenant Brandon Boutelle (JAGC, USN; J.D., Albany Law School, 2000; B.S., Rochester Institute of Technology, 1997) is the Deputy Public Defender for Essex County, New York. Captain Stephen Sarnoski (JAGC, USN; J.D., University of Connecticut, 1985; M.P.A., University of Hartford, 1980; B.S., University of New Haven, 1975) served as Commanding Officer for this unit. Commander Gregory P. Noone (JAGC, USN; J.D., Suffolk University Law School, 1990; M.A., The Catholic University of America, 2002; B.A., Villanova University, 1987) is teaching at University of West Virginia and completing his Ph.D. The authors would like to express their gratitude to Commander (Select) John V. Danner, Jr., JAGC, USN, and Lieutenant Commander John Fojut, JAGC, USN, who served as editors for this article. Additionally, the authors would like to express appreciation to: Captain (Ret.) Ashley Roach, JAGC, USN, and to the Office of the Judge Advocate General, USN, International and Operational Law Division, in Washington D.C., for its guidance and support in this article. 2007] BRIDGING THE GAP MASTER'S CONSENT TO BOARDINGS ............................... 591 1. The Master's Authority in UNCLOS ......................... 593 2. The Master's Authority Under the International Maritime Organization Conventions (IMO) .............. 595 3. The Master's Authority in Custom, Practice (and Lore) in Commercial Shipping .................................. 601 B. MASTER'S CONSENT TO SEARCHES OF HIS VESSEL ........... 604 C. MASTER'S CONSENT TO THE CAPTURE OF BIOMETRIC DATA FROM A CREWMEMBER .......................................... 606 II. UNSCRS AS A BASIS FOR BOARDINGS AND SEARCHES: HISTORICAL PRECEDENT FOR USE OF MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS ................... 609 A . R H O D ESIA ......................................................................... 6 10 B . IR AQ .................................................................................. 6 14 C. FORMER YUGOSLAVIA ...................................................... 617 D . H A ITI ................................................................................ 6 18 III. MODERN MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS IN THE W AR ON TERROR ................................................ 621 A. LEADERSHIP INTERDICTION OPERATIONS IN A FGHANISTAN ................................................................. 622 B. ISRAELI NAVY KARINE-A INCIDENT ................................. 623 C. WAR ON TERROR MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS OTHER THAN AFGHANISTAN ....................... 625 D . PIRATES IN SOMALIA ......................................................... 628 IV. MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW REGARDING THE BASIS TO AUTHORIZE B O A R D IN G S ........................................................................ 630 A. MULTILATERAL CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOLS ON T ERRORISM ...................................................................... 630 B. THE ACHILLELAURO INCIDENT .......................................... 632 C. PROVISIONS OF THE CONVENTION FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF UNLAWFUL ACTS AGAINST THE SAFETY OF MARITIME NAVIGATION (SUA) AND ITS 2005 PROTOCOL ............................................................... 633 D. RESPONSIBILITIES AND AUTHORITIES OF THE SHIP MASTER AND THE FLAG STATE UNDER SUA AND ITS 2005 PROTOCOL ............................................................... 636 V. U.N. AUTHORITIES FOR MARITIME INTERCEPTION O PERA TIO N S ...................................................................... 638 AM. U, INT'L L. RE v. [22:583 A. SELF-DEFENSE UNDER U.N. CHARTER, ARTICLE 51 ........ 639 B. U.N. SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS ON COMBATING TERRORISM POST 9/11 ................................ 644 VI. LAW ENFORCEMENT REGIMES AND AUTHORITIES FOR MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS ........... 648 A. COUNTER-NARCOTICS OPERATIONS REGIME .................... 649 B. HUMAN SMUGGLING OPERATIONS REGIME ....................... 654 C. THE PROLIFERATION SECURITY INITIATIVE (PSI) ............. 655 VII. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DEVELOPING MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS INTO MORE EFFECTIVE TOOLS IN THE WAR ON T ER R O R ............................................................................... 662 A. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING AUTHORITIES TO CONDUCT MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS IN THE WAR ON T ERR OR ............................................................................ 662 1. A U.N. Security Council Resolution is Golden ......... 662 2. Self-Defense Under Article 51 of the U.N. Charter A lw ays Trum ps ......................................................... 663 3. When in Doubt, Obtain Flag-State Consent .............. 664 4. BoardingAgreements Save Time ............................... 665 5. There Are No Treaties Exactly on Point .................... 665 6. The IMO Has Yet To Solve the Problem ................... 666 B. EXPANDING AUTHORITIES TO CONDUCT MARITIME INTERCEPTION OPERATIONS IN THE WAR ON TERROR ..... 666 1. Seek or Interpret U.N. Security Council Authority to Conduct Maritime Interception Operations to Prevent Terrorism ..................................................... 667 2. Conduct Non-ConsensualBoardings and the Taking of Biometrics as Consistent with the U.N. Charter ...................................................................... 668 3. Seek Expanded Authorities Under the InternationalMaritime Organization(IMO) ............. 668 4. Continue to Pressfor PSI and Other Bilateral BoardingAgreements ................................................ 669 5. Seek an InternationalConvention that Authorizes Non-ConsensualBoarding of Vessels, and the Taking of Biometrics, when Appropriate