The Securitisation of Hizb ut Tahrir A Comparative Case Study A Thesis Submitted to Royal Holloway, University of London in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in International Relations Submitted by Nomaan Hanif Department of Politics and International Relations University of London 2014 1 Declaration of Authorship I ……………………. hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: ______________________ Date: ________________________ 2 Abstract Hizb ut Tahrir (HT) is a rapidly growing trans-national Islamic movement which aims to revive the classical Islamic Caliphate. Consequently, it has come under increasing international focus as a result of its rapid expansion beyond its traditional heartland of the Middle East into Central Asia, South Asia and Europe, in turn eliciting diverse reactions from governments, ranging from it being constructed as a threat to the state, to its political acceptance and even protection. This study evaluates the discrepancy in this treatment under diverse political contexts. It argues that differing government responses to HT are premised on subjective political and security considerations, and not on the objective reality of HT’s political programme and history of activism. HT specifies the area in which the Caliphate is to be revived (the majaal, or location of power) as the Arab Middle East. HT maintains that Arab-speaking societies must be the basis of a revived Caliphate because of the inseparable link that exists between Islam and the Arabic language. HT therefore does not constitute an existential threat to states ruling over non-Arab speaking Muslim societies. HT’s political programme and history of attempted coup d’états attests to its challenge to states in the Arab Middle East; but no such precedent exists outside of that region. This thesis provides an explanation for the government responses to HT outside the Middle East through the theory of securitisation and the securitisation model developed by the Copenhagen 3 School. This model looks at the construction of security as a subjective phenomenon, primarily through the medium of the ‘speech act’ which is designed to convince audiences to accept the mobilisation of ‘special measures’ in order to deal with constructed threats. In support of this argument the study provides a series of comparative case studies of HT under differing political contexts which includes the Arab Middle East, Uzbekistan, Indonesia and the UK. 4 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Hizb ut Tahrir: Issues Concerning its Securitisation 12 1.1 Political Islam: Islamism and Neo Fundamentalism 13 1.2 Why is Hizb ut Tahrir Unique? 15 1.3 Studies on Hizb ut Tahrir 20 1.4 Existing Research Gaps 22 1.5 Hypothesis and Methodology 24 1.51 Primary Sources and Analytical Tools 26 1.52 Secondary Sources 27 1.6 Case Studies 30 1.7 Theoretical Issues: The Securitization Model of the Copenhagen School 34 1.8 Critique of the Securitization Model 41 1.81 Limitations of the Speech Act 43 1.82 Conditions for Successful Securitization 45 1.9 Organization of the Thesis 47 Chapter 2: Origins, Ideology and Strategy of Non-Violent Revolution 49 2.1 Classical Tools, Modern Ideology 49 2.2 Qualifications of Usool (foundations of Jurisprudence) 53 2.3 The Objective: Reviving the Transnational Role of Khilafah 57 2.4 The Theory of Change: Reviving Islam as a Political Ideology 69 2.5 The Strategy for Change: Mobilising Political Detachment 76 5 2.6 Action towards Change: Sixfold Agenda 81 2.7 The Process of Change: Nusrah and Non-Violent Transfer of Power 86 Conclusion 88 Chapter 3: The Majaal: Understanding and Locating the Existential Threat 90 3.1 Defining the Majaal – Linking Ideology with Geography 94 3.2 Hizb ut Tahrir as an Existential Threat 111 2.21 Destabilizing the Society and System 111 2.22 Targeting Power 122 3.3 The New Security Environment in the Post Arab Spring 2011 132 3.4 Hamas and the Paradox of Hizb ut Tahrir’s Securitization 135 Conclusion 142 Chapter 4: Manufacturing the Threat of Hizb ut Tahrir in Uzbekistan 143 4.1 Uzbekistan Hizb ut Tahrir Strategy 147 4.2 Misreading Hizb ut Tahrir’s Objectives in Uzbekistan 149 4.3 Islam Karimov and the Securitization of Political Islam 153 4.4 Emergency Measures Against Hizb ut Tahrir 157 4.5 Efforts to Securitize Hizb ut Tahrir as a Terrorist Movement 163 4.6 The Question of Akromiya and Domestic Academics as Securitizing Actors 175 4.7 The Securitizing Influence of Western Actors on Hizb ut Tahrir in Uzbekistan 181 Conclusion 195 6 Chapter 5: Societal Security and Hizb ut Tahrir in Indonesia 197 5.1 The Origins and Development of Hizb ut Tahrir in Indonesia 201 5.2 Seeking Legitimacy, Avoiding Securitization 211 5.3 Hizb ut Tahrir Indonesia’s Conceptual Pragmatism 214 5.4 The Efforts of Civil Society Foundations to Securitize Hizb ut Tahrir Indonesia 223 Conclusion 245 Chapter 6: The Struggle to De-Securitise Hizb ut Tahrir in Britain 247 6.1 The Evolution of Hizb ut Tahrir’s Strategy in Britain 253 6.2 The Battle over Hizb ut Tahrir’s Proscription 262 6.3 Meeting the Home Office Criteria: Hizb ut Tahrir’s Response to Proscription and Securitization 282 Conclusion 310 Chapter 7: Conclusion 312 7.1 Summary of Findings 312 7.11 The Majaal 313 7.12 Non-Majaal – Muslim Countries 315 7.13 Non-Majaal – Non Muslim Countries 319 7.2 Implications of Findings 321 7.3 Limits of the Study 323 7.4 Suggestions for Future Research 324 Bibliography 327 7 Abbreviations ACPO : Association of Community Police Officers AKKBB : Aliansi Kebangsaan Kebebasan Beragama dan Keyakinan (National Alliance for Freedom of Religion and Belief) AM : Al Muhajiroun (The Emigrants) AQ : Al Qaeda BBC : British Broadcasting Corporation BDBJ : Board of Deputies of British Jews BIN : Indonesian National Intelligence Service CACI : Central Asia Caucus Institute CEIP : Carnegie Endowment for International Peace CPRI : Conflict and Peace Research Institute CS : Copenhagen School EU : European Union FCO : British Foreign and Commonwealth Office FJP : Freedom and Justice Party FOI : Freedom of Information Act FPI : Islamic Defenders‘ Front FS : British Foreign Secretary FUI : Forum Ummat Islam (Muslim Ummah Forum) FS : Foreign Secretary HO : British Home Office HS : British Home Secretary HRW : Human Rights Watch 8 HS : Home Secretary HT : Hizb ut Tahrir (Party of Liberation) HTB : Hizb ut Tahrir Britain HTI : Hizb ut Tahrir Indonesia HuN : Hizb un Nusra (Party of Influence/Power) IAF : Islamic Action Front ICSA : Islamic Supreme Council of America ICG : International Crisis Group IDF : Islamic Defenders Front IJU : Islamic Jihad Group of Uzbekistan IMU : Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan IPB : Bogor Institute for Agriculture IRP : Islamic Renaissance Party JC : Jewish Chronicle JIL : Liberal Islam Network KSICC : Kelompok Studi Islam Standard Chartered (Standard Chartered Islamic Study Circle) MEIRP : Middle East Information and Research Project MB : Muslim Brotherhood MCB : Muslim Council of Britain MAB : Muslim Association of Britain MP : Minister of Parliament MUI : Majelis Ulama Indonesia (Indonesian Ulama Council) NGO : Non Government Organization NKRI : Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia (Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia) NSA : Non State Actor NU : Nahdlatul Ulama 9 NUS : National Union of Students OSCE : Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe OSCT : Office for Security and Counter Terrorism OSI : Open Society Institute PA : Palestinian Authority PCHR : Palestinian Centre for Human Rights PKS : Prosperous and Justice Party PLO : Palestinian Liberation Organization PM : Prime Minister QF : Quilliam Foundation SAIS : John Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies SMT : Social Movement Theory SNB : Uzbek National Security Agency ST : Sunday Telegraph UJS : Union of Jewish Students ULU : University of London Union UNHCR : United Nations Human Rights Commission US : United States WOT : War on Terror 10 List of Figures No. Titles Page 1.1 The nucleus of ideology from party to state 19 1.2 Linking the majaal and non-majaal case studies with securitization 25 1.3 Emmers spectrum of securitization 38 2.1 The expansion of Hizb ut Tahrir (1952-2000) 52 2.2 Nabhani’s usool – primary and secondary sources 54 2.3 HT’s heirachical organisational structure 73 2.4 HT’s plans for revolutionary action 84 2.5 HT’s plan of action in promoting revolutionary change 85 2.6 HT’s three stage programme of societal transformation 88 3.1 Securitization model for HT in the Middle East pre-Arab spring 92 3.2 HT’s majaal and its periphery 94 3.3 HT’s theory on the role of Arabic in the process of Islamic revival 95 3.4 Nabhani’s Theory on the complimentary characteristics of Islam and Arabic 97 3.5 HT’s criteria for the caliphate 100 3.6 HT’s conception of how the caliphate will expand 102 3.7 HT’s theory of the relationship between Islam and Arabic in decline and revival 104 3.8 HT’s correlation of its method with each stage of the Prophet’s mission 106 3.9 The criteria for leadership in orthodox Sunnism, Shiaism and the wilayat –ul-faqih 107 3.10 HT’s movement as a unit at each stage of its political programme 112 3.11 History of HT’s activism 132 4.1 The securitization of HT in Uzbekistan 147 4.2 Comparison between HT and IMU objectives in Uzbekistan 149 4.3 HT’s strategy in Uzbekistan 151 4.4 Data on HT and other political prisoners in Uzbekistan 159 5.1 The securitization of HT in Indonesia 200 6.1 The securitization of HT in the UK 252 6.2 The de-securitization of HT in the UK 252 11 Chapter 1 Hizb ut Tahrir: Issues concerning its Securitization This dissertation studies the Islamist group Hizb ut Tahrir (Party of Liberation) (HT) in the Middle East, Uzbekistan, Indonesia and the Britain.