THE POWERFUL PULL OF SUNCOAST HIGH SCHOOL: HOW MAGNET SCHOOLS TURNED DESEGREGATION INTO CHOICE, 1969-2000 By AMY CAMILE MARTINELLI A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2015 © 2015 Amy C. Martinelli To my South Bay Momma and Detroit Daddy who never forgot where they came from ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, this work could not have been completed without the insight and guidance of my adviser, Dr. Sevan Terzian. Throughout this endeavor, he has driven me persistently to produce meaningful research. I have come to this point having had Sevan as my guide for more years than he or I may care to acknowledge. Throughout, he has inspired me to keep going even in moments when all I wanted to do was quit. He had faith in me when I had doubts. I am grateful for the time we spent together and will carry on into the future with the knowledge he has imparted in me. In addition, my committee members have all encouraged me in their own way. Dr. Link’s seminar on Southern History helped me to choose the topic for this dissertation and exposed me to challenging historical concepts. My occasional hallway run-ins with Dr. Elizabeth Bondy kept me aware of my own progress toward completion, or lack thereof. And Dr. Dorene Ross’ personal and academic counsel not only motivated me to continue, but also inspired me to have faith that the work I would produce would matter. Their part in my journey into dissertation writing has been paramount to my ability to produce this work. But scholarship without friendship would truly be nothing at all. Throughout my time as a graduate student I had the great fortune of becoming friends with a wonderful group of peers who became my people. Lauren Tripp Barlis, Emma Humphries, Katie Tricarico, Elyse Hambacher, and Kathryn Comerford were there through evening classes and late night drinks. Each assured me that if they could do this I could do this. These women helped to keep my “eyes on the prize” with encouragement and laughter. These days, finding fellow historians of education can feel like a rare find. I’m eternally grateful to have had the opportunity to work alongside Jess Clawson and 4 Kenneth Noble. As we made our way through graduate school I felt like Jess, Kenneth, and I complemented each other very well—socially and academically. We fostered an environment of collegiality rather than competition and each of them showed me how to be myself in academia. Former graduates of this program have contributed to my scholarship and ability as well. Andrew Gruntzke, Patrick Ryan, and Bob Dahlgren included me in panels, discussions about my work, and even publications and have fostered my growth in this field. The relationships I made in the University of Florida History Department have also pushed me to work harder than I would on my own. Allen Kent, Mike Brandon, and Jessica Lancia welcomed me in a sometimes unwelcoming environment. I am also thankful for the opportunities that I’ve had within the History of Education Society where I have been fortunate enough to forge relationships with students and professors from across the country. Jacob Hardesty and Emily Hodge helped me sustain a professional life outside of the University of Florida. I am also indebted to those people who had no idea what I have been doing all these years but supported me nonetheless. Cori Clements Traynham has been my closest friend who always sees the best in me, who encourages me to work when I needed to work, and allows me to play when I need to play. Eric White, the other half of my heart, has been by my side for so long and is ready to see what life will give me next and what I will give to the world. Terrence Funke lives up to his name and has kept me dancing and singing through the hard days and the great days. Brittany Lee, took me to early morning breakfasts when I needed an early start to my day. I must also acknowledge my speech and debate family for giving me a home where I always felt competent. My fellow coaches Idania Herrera, Carrie Vath, Joy Fetchel, Colin Rawls, 5 and Hannah Strange helped me to become a leader. Working with students helped remind me about how to formulate arguments in a powerful way. Marna Weston always kept it real. Betsy McCann gave me rainbows, sunshine, and love all the way through. There are almost no words for what Kellie Roberts has done for me. She had faith in me as an undergraduate student, allowed me to be a coach, and shown a light on the path to completion. I’ll be forever indebted to her generosity of spirit. Lastly, my partner in life and love, Elliot Tebbe, showed me what it means to love academic work. I can’t wait to see what life has in store for us in Lincoln. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 9 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 10 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 11 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 12 Scholarly Significance ............................................................................................. 13 Research Questions and Methods .......................................................................... 23 2 DELAY AND SUBVERSION: FLORIDA’S HISTORY OF DESEGREGATION FROM BROWN TO UNITARY STATUS ................................................................. 28 A Brick Wall Lasts Longer than a Riot: Florida’s Moderate Approach to Desegregation ..................................................................................................... 32 The Miami Test: Tokenism in “America’s Playground” ............................................ 38 Orchard Villa Elementary School: The Model For Desegregation in Florida, 1958 .............................................................................................................. 42 Throwing Pebbles at a Brick Wall: The Desegregation of Palm Beach County Schools ................................................................................................................ 54 Palm Beach County’s Early Desegregation Battle, 1955-1973 .................. 54 3 THE COSTS OF DESEGREGATION IN ‘THE SECOND MOST DIFFICULT’ REGION IN THE COUNTRY .................................................................................. 69 A Brief History of Race Relations in Palm Beach County ....................................... 69 The Civil Rights Tradition of Riviera Beach ............................................................. 73 1969: Representing Kennedy High ................................................................... 76 “The Second Most Difficult Desegregation Problem in the United States” .................................................................................................... 83 1970-71: The Shuttle Bus Desegregation “Solution” ........................................ 91 4 SUNCOAST FROM UNITARY STATUS TO VOLUNTARY DESEGREGATION .. 109 Riviera Beach Becomes Charger Country, 1973-1978 ......................................... 111 A Decade of Decline, 1978-1989 .......................................................................... 120 Suncoast: “The Closest Thing to an Inner City School in the South,”1984- 1989 ............................................................................................................ 122 Suncoast Gets a “Spiritual Facelift”—Fredeva Nelson, 1984-1987 .......... 125 Discipline and Direction—Terry Andrews, 1987-1989 .............................. 132 The Quest to Save Suncoast, 1987-1989 ............................................................. 135 7 Planning for Change: Making Suncoast a Magnet School of Distinction ....... 142 5 THE MAGNET SCHOOL THAT “WORKED”: THE DOUBLE EDGE OF SUNCOAST’S SUCCESS, 1989-2000 ................................................................. 148 Creating the New Suncoast—A School of Excellence .......................................... 153 1989-1993: Suncoast’s New Class of Student ............................................... 164 Being Black at Suncoast .......................................................................... 168 The Students Who Got Shipped Out ........................................................ 174 The Price of Elitism, 1993-2000 ............................................................................ 178 6 CONCLUSION: THE LASTING IMPACT OF SUNCOAST HIGH SCHOOL’S MAGNET CONVERSION ..................................................................................... 193 Local Problem – National Significance.................................................................. 198 Scholarly Implications ........................................................................................... 207 The Inequality of Choice ....................................................................................... 215 LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 219 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................... 229 8 LIST OF TABLES Table page