Cover design by Melissa Shavlik, NWPCC Photos by Eric Loudenslager, Erik Merrill, and Kentaro Morita Independent Scientific Advisory Board for the Northwest Power and Conservation Council, Columbia River Basin Indian Tribes, and National Marine Fisheries Service 851 SW 6th Avenue, Suite 1100 Portland, Oregon 97204 Contributors ISAB and Ad Hoc Members J. Richard Alldredge, Ph.D., Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Washington State University Peter A. Bisson, Ph.D., Senior Scientist at the Olympia (Washington) Forestry Sciences Laboratory of the U.S. Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station (ad hoc member) James Congleton, Ph.D., Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit and Professor, University of Idaho (retired) Nancy Huntly, Ph.D., Professor of Biology and Director of the Ecology Center, Utah State University Roland Lamberson, Ph.D., Emeritus Professor of Mathematics and Director of Environmental Systems Graduate Program at Humboldt State University Colin Levings, Ph.D., Scientist Emeritus at Centre for Aquaculture and Environmental Research, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, West Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Robert J. Naiman, Ph.D., Professor of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences at University of Washington William Pearcy, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences at Oregon State University Bruce Rieman, Ph.D., Research Scientist Emeritus, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station Greg Ruggerone, Ph.D., Fisheries Scientist for Natural Resources Consultants, Affiliated Research Scientist Alaska Salmon Program, University of Washington Dennis Scarnecchia, Ph. D., Professor of Fish and Wildlife Resources at University of Idaho Courtland Smith, Ph. D., Professor Emeritus, School of Language, Culture, and Society, Oregon State University (ad hoc member) Peter Smouse, Ph.D., Professor of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources at Rutgers University Chris C. Wood, Ph.D., Conservation Biology Section, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada Support ISAB Ex Officios, Coordinators, and Staff Michael Ford, Ph.D., Director of the Conservation Biology Program at the Northwest Fisheries Science Center Erik Merrill, J.D., Independent Science Program Manager, Northwest Power and Conservation Council William Muir, M.S., Research Fishery Biologist at the Northwest Fisheries Science Center Laura Robinson, ISAB and Northwest Power and Conservation Council Intern Phil Roger, Ph.D., Fisheries Science Manager at the Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission James Ruff, M.S., P.H., Manager, Mainstem Passage and River Operations, Northwest Power and Conservation Council Using a Comprehensive Landscape Approach for More Effective Conservation and Restoration Table of Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................. v List of Sidebars .............................................................................................................................................. v Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... vi Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................... vii I. Introduction and Background ............................................................................................................... 1 Objective of the Report ............................................................................................................................. 1 Scope of the report ................................................................................................................................... 3 Structure of the report .............................................................................................................................. 3 II. Landscape Legacy of the Columbia River Basin .................................................................................... 5 Landscape Effects of Pre-settlement Resource Use by Native Americans ............................................... 6 Use of fire to manage habitat ............................................................................................................... 6 Use of aquatic resources ....................................................................................................................... 6 The Fur Trade: Agent of Landscape-Scale Change .................................................................................... 6 Habitat Conversion and Fragmentation: Railroads, Agriculture, Timber Harvest, and Roads ................. 8 Railroads................................................................................................................................................ 9 Grazing .................................................................................................................................................. 9 Farming ............................................................................................................................................... 11 Logging and forest management ........................................................................................................ 13 Roads ................................................................................................................................................... 14 Habitat Conversion and Fragmentation: River Channel Modification and Hydropower ....................... 14 Channel modification .......................................................................................................................... 17 Dams ................................................................................................................................................... 17 Habitat Conversion and Fragmentation: Urbanization and Exurbanization ........................................... 21 Consequences of Landscape Change for Fish and Wildlife Populations ................................................. 22 Consequences of Landscape Change for Fisheries-dependent Communities ........................................ 28 Future Trends .......................................................................................................................................... 28 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 29 Historical review ................................................................................................................................. 29 Agents of change ................................................................................................................................. 29 Non-random and cumulative change ................................................................................................. 30 Loss of Habitat and Connectivity ........................................................................................................ 30 Changing values .................................................................................................................................. 30 A challenging future ............................................................................................................................ 30 III. Foundations for a Comprehensive Landscape Approach ................................................................... 31 A Landscape Context ............................................................................................................................... 31 Biophysical processes.......................................................................................................................... 34 Socioeconomic processes ................................................................................................................... 39 Integration and an Interdisciplinary Process ...................................................................................... 42 Adaptive Capacity ............................................................................................................................... 43 Principles for a Comprehensive Landscape Approach to Conservation and Restoration ...................... 44 i Socioeconomic Principles .................................................................................................................... 46 Landscape Principles ........................................................................................................................... 46 Integrative Principles .......................................................................................................................... 47 Adaptive Capacity Principles ............................................................................................................... 48 Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 49 IV. Criteria to Evaluate Landscape Conservation and Restoration .......................................................... 51 Criteria and Examples ............................................................................................................................