DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON THE CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF TUNISIAN WETLANDS A CASE STUDY OF GRAZING AT ICHKEUL by FETHI AYACHE Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of London ProQuest Number: 10610826 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10610826 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ABSTRACT This thesis is about the conservation of wetlands in Tunisia in line with the new thinking about sustainable development for renewable natural resource conservation. A review of development concepts revealed that the proposed sustainable development and "wise use" of wetlands have several lim itations pertaining to their definition and means of application. It has also been shown that environmental degradation has been continuous throughout the history of Tunisia. Policies based on conventional economic development have further exacerbated this degradation after independence in 1956. A survey of the functions and values of Tunisian wetlands highlights their socio-econom ic and e c o lo g ic a l im portance, and gaps in knowledge. The functions and values of Ichkeul are taken as an illustration of wetland development and conservation in Tunisia. This case study highlights the low priority of conservation of wetlands in Tunisia and the significance of national development in the conservation of this wetland which has received national and international protection. The core of the thesis concentrates on the sustainable utilization of grazing on the marshes at the Ichkeul National Park. Exclosures were constructed to examine vegetation growth. A questionnaire and participant observation were used to describe the grazing cycle, evaluate the socio-economic importance of pastoral ism and asess the reactions of the local people to the changes induced by development in the area. The evolution of the vegetation growth through the Net Above Primary Production (NAPP) and the ratio of fresh/dry weight vegetation accorded with the cycle of grazing as used by local people. This consisted on grazing on the mountains in winter and autumn; on the marshes in spring, late summer and early autumn; and on th e harvested a g r ic u ltu r a l land in e a rly summer. The contribution of income to the household budget was at least 60V. for 68'/. of the sampled population. Local people have a generally negative reaction to the development actions which have caused significant deterioration of the vegetation on the marshes. This information along with the literature review, allowed the formulation of five recommendations which were submitted to local people, local decision makers, central decision makers, Tunisian Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and international organisations (NGOs and others). The reaction to the recommendations permitted the e v a lu a tio n of th e proposals but more im p o rta n tly showed th a t th e re is a lack of coordination at the central level; the ignorance of decision makers in Tunis about the local realities; an inadequate background of the manager of the Ichkeul National Park to understand the local people's role and needs; an overwelming importance of two leaders from the local community in decision making; the weakness of Tunisian NGOs in promoting conservation in Tunisia. These obstacles to sustainable grazing on the marshes have in turn allowed the formulation of four possible solutions at the level of the local community, local authority, central authority and Tunisian and international NGOs. Finally, building on the findings of the whole thesis a proposal for a "National Wetlands Policy" is outlined. Acknowledgments I would like to thank all people that helped me during the preparation of this thesis. My special debts and gratitude are to my supervisor Dr. G.E. Hollis for his unvaluable advice, constant guidance and encouragement during the entire period of my research. Thanks are also due to other members of the Staff of the Department of Geography at U.C.L, particularly to Dr. P.A. Jackson for his comments on the q u e s tio n n a ire and reading of c h a p te rs and to Dr. J. Burgess, P ro f. R. Munton, Dr. C.M. H a rriso n and Dr. P. Wood fo r their valuable advice. My thanks go to B. 0. Wilen from the U.S Fish and W ildlife Service fo r h is h elp w ith documents on U.S w etlands; to Dr. E. Msltby and h is assistant R. Hughes from Department of Geography, Exeter University for allowing me to have access to their personal documents; to M. Smart from the Ramsar Bureau fo r p ro v id in g documents on th e Ramsar Convention and Tunisian wetlands. In Tunisia, I would like to thank Mme H. Baccar for allowing me to leave the Directorate of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture despite the shortage of staff in this department, to 0. Hadhli the documentalist of the libpajy at the Directorate of Planning at the Ministry of Agriculture for providing me with documents on Agricultural development and to H. Baraket the manager of Ichkeul National Park for his help in the field. Thanks are also due to the local people at Ichkeul especially to A1i Belloumi. I also wish to record my gratitude to my family for their constant encouragement and to my friends particularly P. McGinn, F. Dikotter, R. Hamade, R. Amimi, and S. Kay. Finally, I would like to thank- the British Council for their financial support to this thesis. TABLE DF CONTENTS page A b s tra c t 2 Acknowledgement 4 Table of Contents 6 List of Figures 9 List of Tables 11 List of Plates 15 I. INTRODUCTION: wetlands and perceived concepts 16 1.1. Why wetlands are important ? 17 1.2. why wetlands are threatened ? 18 1.3. How thinking on conservation of wetlands has developed ? 21 1.4 Conservation of wetlands in Tunisia 22 1.5. Objectives and research questions 23 1.6. Structure and content of the thesis 26 I I . DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 30 2.1. Development as an 'economic development':Concept and 30 1imi tations 2.2. Development as a 'sustainable development': concepts, 36 lim itations and future application(s) 2.3. Sustainable development of wetlands or wise use of wetlands 47 2 .3 .1 . Ramsar Convention and wise use of w etlands 47 2.3.2. Local participation in the wise use of wetlands 55 I I I . DEVELOPMENT IN TUNISIA 59 3.1. The inherited environment: The legacy of the past 59 3.2. Development from the 1960s 64 3.3. Agricultural development and renewable natural resources 73 3.3.1. Prevalent French values in agricultural development 74 3.3.1.1. Uncertainties over agricultural development 74 3.3.1.2. Irrigation development and participation 77 3.3.1.3. Forestry development and participation 79 3.3.2. Declining investment in the agricultural sector 80 IV. VALUES AND FUNCTIONS OF TUNISIAN WETLANDS 87 4.1. Introduction: Background information 4.2. Current values and functions 87 4.2.1. Fish habitat 94 4.2.2. Yield, value and productivity of fishing in wetlands 94 4.2.3. Salt production 100 4.2.4. Flood control 112 4 .2 .5 . B ird and w i l d l i f e h a b ita t 116 4 .2 .6 . Hunting 125 4.2.7. Other functions (grazing, agricultural use, waste 127 d is p o s a l) 4 .2 .8 . P o te n tia l F u n ctio n s (education , re c re a tio n and 130 scientific research V. VALUES AND FUNCTIONS OF ICHKEUL WETLANDS 134 5.1. Introduction: description and background information 134 5 .2 . Values and fu n c tio n s o f Ichkeul w etlands 137 5.2.1. Fish and fishing 137 5.2.2. Birds especially waterfowl 145 5.2.3. Recreation, Education and Scientific Research 155 5 .2 .4 . G razing 168 5.2.5. Other values (Forage, vegetation productsand other 172 values) 5 .3 . Summary and d is c u s s io n 179 5.3.1. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation 179 5.3.2. The conservation of Ichkeul wetlands: A decision 181 which has to be made at top political levels V I. EXCLOSURES STUDIES 184 6.1. Introduction 184 6 .2 . F ie ld w o rk and lo c a tio n o f th e exclosures 185 6.3. Characteristics and description of the exclosures 186 6 .4 . Sampling 187 6.4.1. Quadrat size 187 6 .4 .2 . Quadrat shape 187 6.4.3. Sampling method 188 6 .4 .4 . Number of sam pling u n its 188 6.4.5. Frequency and timing of sampling 190 6.5. Discussion of the quantitative data 191 6.6. Discussion of the qualitative data 194 V II. GRAZING SURVEY: METHODOLOGY 197 7.1. Introduction 197 7 .2 . Survey area and p o p u la tio n 198 7.2.1. Fieldwork period 200 7.2.2.