See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323167507 BOOK CHAPTER - PARSLEY Chapter · February 2018 CITATIONS READS 0 4,893 2 authors: Ghazi Daradkeh Mohamed Essa Musthafa Hamad Medical Corporation Sultan Qaboos University 26 PUBLICATIONS 139 CITATIONS 296 PUBLICATIONS 3,058 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: psychopharmacology View project Amyloid beta and AD pathophysiology View project All content following this page was uploaded by Ghazi Daradkeh on 14 February 2018. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. 16 Parsley Ghazi Daradkeh1,2 and Musthafa Mohamed Essa1* 1Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman; 2Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar 16.1 Botany RH (Cantwell, 2001) and of over 12 days in a cold store at 0–2°C and RH 95–97% 16.1.1 Introduction (Lisiewska et al., 1997). However, at 18–20°C and 85–90% RH, it can only be stored for 3 days (Lisiewska et al., 1997). As already Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) is a herb belong- noted, parsley can be cold stored, but it is ing to the Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) sensitive to chilling injury. family (Fig. 16.1). It is native to the Mediterra- nean region where it is found in the wild form. It is mostly grown outdoors and is sea- sonally harvested (Navazio, 2012). Parsley is a leafy vegetable, rich in many biologically 16.1.2 History active compounds, and its name (Petroselinum) is derived from the Greek for ‘rock celery’; it The botanical name Petroselinum is derived can be distinguished from other leafy green from the Greek words ‘petros’, meaning stone herbs by its unique aroma. In sunny areas (it grows on rocky hillsides) and ‘selinon’ with suitable environmental conditions – in a (parsley or celery). Parsley is mentioned in humid soil with a pH of 5.3–7.3 – parsley may Greek historical records as being used for grow up to 60–120 cm tall (Navazio, 2012). cheering sportsmen by wearing crowns made Parsley is sensitive to water stress, espe- of parsley; wreaths made from parsley were cially if it is planted in the summer and at the also used to adorn graves. Parsley was also used end of spring, and to increase production and in Roman rituals. There are reports of it being improve quality, a permanent source of water sprinkled over dead bodies to remove the should be provided. Both growth stage and smell too. Parsley is used in the Jewish cele- parsley type determine the susceptibility of bration of the Passover as well. It is men- the plants to water stress (Petropoulos et al., tioned as one of the plants in the gardens of 2006; Najla et al., 2012). Charlemagne and Catherine de Medici, and Fresh parsley has been reported to have there is a rumour that parsley was popular- a storage life of 1–2 months at 0°C and 95–100% ized in France by Catherine de Medici. *Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected] © CAB International 2016. Leafy Medicinal Herbs: Botany, Chemistry, Postharvest Technology and Uses (eds D.C.P. Ambrose et al.) 189 190 G. Daradkeh and M.M. Essa Fig. 16.1. A parsley plant and leaves. 16.1.3 Location and zinc; it is an important dietary component for strengthening bone due to its high con- Parsley is believed to be native to southern tent of boron and fluorine, and also contains Europe, but it is now found throughout the iron and calcium in an absorbable form world. It has been grown in Britain since at (Table 16.1). least the 16th century. Parsley has now become naturalized throughout Europe, North Amer- ica, the West Indies, Algeria and Lebanon. 16.2.2 Phytochemistry 16.1.4 Morphology Parsley has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, diuretic and hypoglycaemic properties due There are three varieties of parsley: curly- to its content of essential oil and phenolic leaved or common parsley, Italian or flat- compounds (Taiz and Zeiger, 1998). Yoshi- leaved parsley and root (Hamburg) parsley, kawa et al. (2000) reported several flavone which is grown for its edible root. The leaves glycosides with oestrogenic activity from are compound, alternately arranged, and the aerial parts of parsley, along with a new are divided into two to three leaflets and the monoterpene glucoside, petroside. plant can grow to over 1 m tall, and as an The leaves contain 0.04–0.4% of volatile annual (in tropical regions) or a biennial oil, and this includes as major constituents crop (in temperate areas). The typical flower- α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, β-phellandrene, ing period is in the warmer months and the 1,3,8-p-menthatriene and myristicin (Charles, ideal temperature for pollination and seed 2004). The aroma of parsley is due to the pres- production is 29–30°C (Teuscher, 2005). ence of terpenes, which are toxic to many The roots are a faint yellow colour and insects. Myristicin (see Fig. 16.2) is a toxic carrot shaped. They can grow up to 20 cm in phenylpropene/allylbenzene compound (also length and 5 cm in width. Hamburg root pars- known as 5-methoxysafrole) and has hallu- ley has larger roots and is commonly used cinogenic properties, acting as a psycho- in European cuisine (Teuscher, 2005). active at high intake levels (Hallström and Thuvander, 1997). The seeds contain 2–8% of volatile oil 16.2 Chemistry and 13–22% of fixed oil, and the major compounds found in the volatile oil are 16.2.1 Chemical (nutritional) α-pinene, β-pinene, myristicin, elemicin, composition 2,3,4,5- tetramethoxy-allylbenzene and apiol (Charles, 2004). Apiol, a phenylpropene Parsley is a ‘powerhouse’ of nutrition, and (also known as apiole and as dimethoxysaf- is rich in B vitamins, vitamin C, β-carotene role; see Fig. 16.3), is responsible for the Parsley 191 Table 16.1. Nutritional value of parsley for one serving (60 g). Adapted from SELFNutritionData (2016); original source USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 21 (USDA ARS, 2008). Nutrient Amount Calories 21.6 Vitamins From carbohydrate 13.3 Vitamin A 5055 IU From fat 4.0 Vitamin B From protein 4.3 Thiamine (B1) 0.1 mg From alcohol 0.0 Riboflavin (B2) 0.1 mg Carbohydrates Niacin (B3) 0.8 mg Total carbohydrate 3.8 g Vitamin B6 0.1 mg Dietary fibre 2.0 g Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.2 mg a Starch ~ Folate (B9) 91.2 mcg Sugar 0.5 g Vitamin B12 0.0 mcg Fats and fatty acids Vitamin C 79.8 mg Total fat 0.5 g Vitamin D ~ Saturated fat 0.1 g Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) 0.4 mg Monounsaturated fat 0.2 g Vitamin K 984 mcg Polyunsaturated fat 0.1 g Choline 7.7 mg Omega-3 fatty acids 4.8 mg Betaine ~ Omega-6 fatty acids 69.0 mg Minerals Protein and amino acids Calcium 82.8 mcg Protein 1.8 g Iron 3.7 mg Sterols Magnesium 30.0 mg Cholesterol 0.0 mg Phosphorus 34.8 mg Phytosterols 3.0 mg Potassium 332 mg Other constituents Sodium 33.6 mg Alcohol 0.0 mg Zinc 0.1 mg Ash 1.3 g Copper 0.1 mg Caffeine 0.0 mg Manganese 0.1 mg Theobromine 0.0 mg Selenium 0.1 mcg Water 52.6 g Fluoride ~ aSignifies missing or incomplete data. OCH3 H2C O O O O OCH3 OCH3 Fig. 16.2. The chemical structure of myristicin. Fig. 16.3. The chemical structure of apiol. Adapted Adapted from Zhang et al., 2006. from Zhang et al., 2006. abortifacient properties of parsley, and the 2003), while apiin (apigenin-7-apioglucoside; herb may be used to treat menstrual dis- see Fig. 16.4) makes up to 0.2–1.6% of the orders (Castleman, 2009). roots (Taiz and Zeiger, 1998). Parsley roots contain 0.2–0.75% of essen- Table 16.2 compares the constituents of tial oil, which has as its main components commercial samples of parsley leaf oil and terpinolene, apiol and myristicin (Orav et al., seed oil. 192 G. Daradkeh and M.M. Essa HO OH OH HO O O C O O HO HO OH OH O Fig. 16.4. The chemical structure of apiin. From Hostetler et al., 2013. Table 16.2. Composition of commercial samples of used with four extractions and 50:50 etha- parsley essential oil. Adapted from Charles, 2004. nol:water, was the best method. Second, Luthria (2008) examined the influence of six Compounds Leaf oil (%) Seed oil (%) additional PLE parameters (particle size, ex- Apiol 0.27 18.32 traction temperature and pressure, flush vol- Elemicin 2.71 4.84 ume, static time, and solid:solvent ratio), 1,3,8-p-Mentha-triene 16.41 0.12 and showed that the phenolic compounds Myrcene 4.24 0.22 obtained were influenced by temperature, Myristicin 11.92 39.65 particle size and solid:solvent ratio, with tem- α-Phellandrene 0.51 0.12 perature having the major effect on the phen- β-Phellandrene 6.48 2.14 olic profile (Luthria, 2008). When the extrac- -Pinene 26.42 15.73 α tion temperature was higher, malonyl apiin β-Pinene 18.04 10.01 Sabinene 1. 1 0.64 was partially degraded to acetylapiin and apiin, Terpinolene 2.52 0.01 while flush volume showed marginal influ- 2,3,4,5-Tetramethoxy- 0.72 7.82 ence on the extracted yield (Luthria, 2008). allylbenzene 16.3.2 Minimal processing 16.3 Postharvest Technology Fresh plant food can either be minimally 16.3.1 Extraction of phenolic compounds processed or not further processed at all prior to consumption.