Equality, respect for human rights, and protection of citizens’ rights by conditions linked to the possibility of achieving good governance and the government are mutually enhancing features of good governance. democracy? Which roles does Islam play in enforcing women partici- They are meant to refer to men and women alike, implying that the deni- pation in this part of the world? In this edition of the Heinrich Boell al of equal rights and equal participation based on gender discriminati- Foundation’s series on Democracy, these questions are analyzed based on is incompatible with the notion of good governance – and the notion on historical and current developments of gender relationships, and the of democracy. But what does the political participation of women look role of women in the politics of Egypt, Morocco, the United Arab Emi- like within the immense diversity of the Arabic world? How are gender rates, and Kuwait. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Schumannstr. 8, 10117 Berlin The Green Political Foundation P 030-285340 F 030-28534109 E [email protected] I www.boell.de ISBN 978-3-86928-040-0 DEMOCRACY VOLUME 21 Diversity and Female Political Participation: Views on and from the Arab World VOLUME 21 Diversity and Female Political Participation: Views on and from the Arab World Claudia Derichs Diversity and Political Participation in the Arab World Hoda Feminists and the Reform of the Personal Status Code Vânia Carvalho Pinto Salah From Ijtihad to Gender Jihad: Islamic Feminists between Regional Acti- Women and Political Participation in the United Arab Emirates Hala Kindelber- vism and Trans nationalism Azadeh Zamirirad and Hala Kindelberger Equality ger Between Neo-patriarchy, Islamization, and Democratization: Gender Equa- by Decree? Political Participation of Women in Egypt Dana Fennert Moroccan lity in Kuwait DIVERSITY AND FEMALE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: VIEWS ON AND FROM THE ARAB WORLD PUBLICATION SERIES ON DEMOCRACY VOLUME 21 Diversity and Female Political Participation: Views on and from the Arab World Concept, compilation and editing by Claudia Derichs Edited by the Heinrich Böll Foundation Diversity and Female Political Participation: Views on and from the Arab World Volume 21 (English Edition) in the publication series on democracy Edited by the Heinrich Böll Foundation © Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung 2010 All rights reserved Concept, compilation and editing: Claudia Derichs Graphic design: graphic syndicat, Michael Pickardt (according to designs by blotto Design) Coverphoto: Cairo, Egypt, 08 April 2008 (dpa) Printing: agit-druck Copyediting: Robert Furlong ISBN 978-3-86928-040-0 This publication can be ordered from: Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung, Schumannstr. 8, D-10117 Berlin P +49 30 285340 F +49 30 28534109 E [email protected] W www.boell.de CONTENTS Foreword 7 Claudia Derichs Introduction Diversity and Political Participation in the Arab World 9 Hoda Salah From Ijtihad to Gender Jihad: Islamic Feminists between Regional Activism and Trans nationalism 27 Azadeh Zamirirad and Hala Kindelberger Equality by Decree? Political Participation of Women in Egypt 47 Dana Fennert Moroccan Feminists and the Reform of the Personal Status Code 63 Vânia Carvalho Pinto Women and Political Participation in the United Arab Emirates 82 Hala Kindelberger Between Neo-patriarchy, Islamization, and Democratization: Gender Equality in Kuwait 94 About the Authors 115 Abbreviations 117 FOREWORD What does the political participation of women look like within the immense diversity of the Arabic world? Which visions have women had and which political experiences have they made in the modernization process of Arabic society? How are gender conditions linked to the possibility of achieving good governance and democracy? Which roles does Islam play in enforcing women participation in this part of the world? In this edition of the Heinrich Boell Foundation’s series on Democracy, these questions are analyzed based on historical and current devel- opments of gender relationships, and the role of women in the politics of Egypt, Morocco, the United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait. The contributions were introduced and discussed at the Women and Politics in Asia – A Springboard for Democracy? conference hosted by the University of Hildesheim in conjunction with the Heinrich Boell Foundation at the end of September 2009. The wide range of ideologies, norms, and political systems in the Arabic region became apparent at the conference and revealed the varying and often informal road to women’s rights. This edition highlights concrete examples and theoretical analyses of how women struggle on the unofficial path between institutional rules and their own genuine political fight for rights and resources. The different roles of Islam and of civil society in Islamic countries can by no means be categorized as only hindering or liberating more political participation by women. The Heinrich Boell Foundation engages itself globally to overcome the patri- archal conditions and power structures in the private as well as the public spheres. The myriad concepts and lifestyles have been recognized and are considered as being equal. The goal is to make social positions, work, income, and power independent from gender considerations. This vision of gender democracy also applies to our work in Islamic countries and is adapted to the respective circum- stances and implemented with local partner organizations in projects. In this manner, the Heinrich Boell Foundation has been able to establish a long-term affiliation with the women’s network Women Living Under Muslim Law, which has been fighting for women’s rights and women’s politics since its founding in the 1980s and is currently operating in 77 countries. For a decade now, we have been supporting the work of the women’s rights organization Shirkat Gah, based in Lahore, Pakistan. The organization works in close cooperation with spiritual leaders to address violence against women and their lack of mobility within the context of daily religious practices. In 2009, the Heinrich Boell Foundation commissioned a study on the daily political lives of women and men in the Foreword Afghanistan parliament and concluded that the loyalties of elected represen- 7 tatives lie with the family clans of the people rather than with their respective gender. We also cooperate in Afghanistan with the Women and Children Legal Research Foundation, which is mobilized against the women-adverse practices of sharia, in which “women exchanges” are still used as a commodity to settle feuds. Through the regional women’s program “A life without violence and discrim- ination is possible!”, the foundation has contributed to the development of the regional women’s network Salma in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, and in the Pales- tinian territories. The multi-year campaign, activities, as well as social sensiti- zation and political lobbying have led to a strengthening of the legal and social positions of women and to more gender equality in the countries involved. We hope that the present edition also inspires the work of these projects and solidifies and encourages the existing network of stakeholders. We extend our gratitude to Prof. Andrea Fleschenberg and Prof. Claudia Derichs, who tirelessly worked to extend the women’s networks beyond national boundaries, conti- nents, politics, and theory. We also give special thanks to the numerous activists, scientists, and politicians from Asia for their work and commitment to interna- tional cooperation. And many thanks to Jana Mittag for the excellent support of the Democracy publication series. Julia Scherf Bernd Asbach Head of Asia Department Head of Middle East Department orld W rab A iews on and from the V Diversity and Female Political Participation: Participation: Political Diversity and Female 8 CLAUDIA DERICHS Introduction Diversity and Political Participation in the Arab World Equality, respect for human rights, and protection of citizens’ rights by the government are mutually enhancing features of good governance. They are meant to refer to men and women alike, implying that the denial of equal rights and equal participation based on gender discrimination is incompatible with the notion of good governance – and the notion of democracy in a narrower sense of the term good governance. Individual women and women’s organiza- tions throughout the Arab world have been emphasizing the importance of equal access (to education, professions, jobs, positions, etc.) and equal opportunities for the political, social, and economic development of their countries. The fourth Arab Human Development Report, released in 2005, underscored this finding and recommended a comprehensive and encompassing empowerment of women if developing nations were to cope with the challenges of an ever more demanding orld W globalized world (UNDP 2005). A recent report by Freedom House on Women’s orld rab W Rights in the Middle East and North Africa, released in March 2010, states that A rab women in the MENA region (Middle East and North Africa) have made some A progress in exercising their human rights, but are still looking at a long road ahead (Kelly 2010: 1). A crucial question that drives researchers on the topic is whether this “long road ahead” is paved with cultural or with political impediments to women’s rights. It is certainly both the cultural and the political pavement, so iews on and from the to speak, that provides obstacles to women’s thoroughly exercising their rights V and participating in their countries’ development and politics in a meaningful