UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Displaced Histories: Refugee Critique and the Politics of Hmong American Remembering A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ethnic Studies by Ma Vang Committee in charge: Professor Yen Le Espiritu, Chair Professor John D. Blanco Professor Ross H. Frank Professor Adria L. Imada Professor Denise Ferreira da Silva Professor Shelley S. Streeby 2012 Copyright Ma Vang, 2012 All rights reserved The dissertation of Ma Vang is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Chair University of California, San Diego 2012 iii DEDICATION For Mom and Dad. Kuv yuav ncu ntsoov meb tug txaj ntswg kws lug ntawm txuj kiv hlub hab kiv khwv. Txhua yam kuv muaj yog lug ntawm meb. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS SIGNATURE PAGE …………………………………..…………………………….…. iii DEDICATION …...…....................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………....................v LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………….……………......vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………...…………………….……………….…..vii VITA…………………………..…………………….……………………………….….. xi ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION………………….…….....................................xii INTRODUCTION…...……………….……………………..…………...............................1 CHAPTER ONE The Missing Baggage: Looking for the Hmong Refugee in Secret Documents...……………….………………………………....….....................................38 CHAPTER TWO The Refugee Soldier: A Critique of Recognition and Citizenship in the Hmong Veterans’ Legislation Act of 1997.……………..…..….……………………….…....83 CHAPTER THREE Dragging Histories: Ally, Terrorist, and Hmong Mobilization......115 CHAPTER FOUR The Attachments of History: The Refugee Grandmother in Gran Torino and The Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir.…...…………………….165 EPILOGUE…………….………...…………………………………………..…………214 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………….…………………………………...221 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Missing Baggage Claim……………………………………………..………...43 Figure 2: Redacted Memorandum……….…………………………………...…….........48 Figure 3: Communist Expansion..………………….…………………………..….…….52 Figure 4: Ethnic Distribution…....………………….…………………………..….…….65 Figure 5: The Ground War……………………………………………………..…...……69 Figure 6: List of Occupation & Skills………………………………………………...….76 Figure 7: List of Hmong Refugees’ Education and Work History……………………....78 Figure 8: Lao Hmong American War Memorial.……………………………………....125 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my dissertation committee for their support and encouragement in the research and writing of this project. My committee chair, Yen Le Espiritu, has been my biggest champion through my training in Ethnic Studies both professionally and socially by fostering different communities of support to sustain my work. Her exceptional mentorship shaped this project in so many ways because she consistently challenges me to ground my ideas in the evidence. Her skillful interpretation of my work, even at its most messy phases, strengthened this project to become more than I could imagine. I cherish our friendship and the many fun get-togethers over the years. She has made San Diego a second home for me. For these things and so much more, I thank you. Ross Frank has continued to offer solid support for my project and professional development. I can always count on him to ask me thought-provoking questions that I do not yet have answers to but nonetheless challenges me to expand my horizon. Denise Silva strengthened my intellectual engagement and transformed how I think about race and Ethnic Studies. She challenged me to think otherwise and helped me to formulate thoughtful critiques as well as to think about the possibilities of the refugee figure. Adria Imada carefully read through my chapters and gave me valuable feedback to expand on my ideas. I appreciate her constructive comments that strengthened my analysis. Shelley Streeby also meticulously read my chapters, generously offering comments on writing and argument development, which has been a tremendous asset for me. Her emphasis on the significance of my ideas is especially meaningful for revising and finishing the dissertation. Jody Blanco helped me to see the overall argument and importance of my project. His suggested readings along with broader discussions about vii the Vietnam War helped push me to define and refine my contribution. In addition to my committee members, I would also like to thank professors who have helped me along the way: Natalia Molina, Wayne Yang, Lisa Park, David Pellow, Lisa Yoneyama, and Takashi Fujitani. Christina Woo, Southeast Asian Archivist at UC Irvine, spent countless hours with me at Langson Library teaching me the nuts and bolts of research. She helped cushion me into doing archival research. I have been fortunate to cultivate friends and colleagues in Southeast Asian American and Hmong Studies who have been instrumental to my development as a scholar. Fiona Ngo was my undergraduate mentor and helped me envision graduate school and a career as a researcher even when I could not see it yet. She guided me to access an imagination for my future and for that I will always be grateful. Through Fiona, I met many scholars whose work in Southeast Asian American Studies inspired me. Mariam Beevi Lam is a leading scholar in this emerging field and I have had the privilege to receive her mentorship through undergraduate and graduate school. I am thrilled that she will be my mentor for the UC President’s Postdoctoral Fellowship at UC Riverside and I look forward to working with her closely in the next two years. I would also like to thank Mimi Thi Nguyen for sharing her work with me and supporting my research. She is a co-editor for the upcoming positions special issue on Southeast Asian/American Studies where my essay will be published. Linda Vo has also been supportive, giving me advice on professionalization regarding jobs, postdoctoral fellowships, and publishing whenever I see her at conferences or meetings. I am privileged to work with her on the Southeast Asian Archive Advisory Board. In addition, I have been lucky to engage with a group of Hmong Studies scholars, including Louisa Schein who gave me tremendous guidance and viii mentorship as a senior Hmong Studies scholar. Chia Youyee Vang, Mai Na Lee, and Leena Neng Her are among the few Hmong women professors who are my role models and have inspired me to pursue a career in academia. I share this journey with fellow Hmong graduate students whose support and determination motivate me to finish this project: Chong Moua, MaiGer Moua, Bruce Thao, Ly Chong Thong Jalao, and Aline Lo. My experience is also inextricably linked with friends from other programs who have continued to provide encouragement for my work: Mark Padoognpatt, Robert Eap, Thang Dao, Emily Hue, and Jennifer Tran. My friends and colleagues at UC San Diego are a source of tremendous support. Thuy Vo Dang and Teresa Cesena repeatedly read and commented on my work, helping to shape chapter two for publication. Becky Kinney and Angela Kong generously offered their advice on writing and professional development. I found a true friend in Maile Arvin who tirelessly read my chapters and fellowship proposals. Her amazing writing and research project is an inspiration for me to work harder and produce better work. I am so proud of her accomplishments. Ayako Sahara became my writing partner in the last two years and helped me see this project to the end. I am grateful for her thoughtful feedback and encouragement as a friend and a colleague. I would also like to thank Davorn Sisavath, Lisa Ho, Kyung Hee Ha, and Laura Beebe for their faith in my work. My cohort has been my biggest strength in graduate school. Each person supported me academically and personally at various times. Tomoko Tsuchiya and I became fast friends and roommates. She offered companionship and advice when I needed it most. Cathi Kozen’s steady encouragement has been a source of strength. She is like an older sister and I have learned so much from her. Long Bui has been a constant source of support as a ix conference buddy, writing group member, and friend. Thank you Long for always being there for me. And last but not least, Angie Morrill and I go way back to our undergraduate days. We even went to the same high school, though years apart, and I’ve felt a special connection to her. Thank you for your love and encouragement. Most of all, I could not have done this without the love and devotion of Kit Myers. I am truly blessed to share in this journey with him. He gave me strength when mine seemed to run out. He is the half that makes me whole. For all you’ve done and will do, I love you. My parents and family make this journey meaningful. I know that my parents, Mai and Vue, don’t have much but they made sure that I went without. My wonderful siblings and sisters-in-law—Yen, Pao Yee, Cha Lee, Mai Neng, Kor, Mao, Mai, and Thomas—keep me grounded in the things in life that matter most. Mai is my friend and confidant, the best sister anyone could ask for. My nieces and nephews—Pao, Xee, James, Connie, Shania, Shinee, Sherry, Chelsea, Alec, Gracelynne, and Lily—bring me joy whenever I go home. I am grateful to my uncle Chong and his wife for their belief in me. My aunt, Kua, has been my personal adviser and friend over the years and I am so blessed to have her in my life. Finally, my grandmothers, Lue and La, are amazing women who I draw my strength from. Thank you both for