Vysoká škola CEVRO Institut DIPLOMOVÁ PRÁCE Bc. Iva Štverková Praha 2016 Vysoká škola CEVRO Institut Katedra bezpečnostních studií NATO AFTER 9/11: THE CRISIS FROM THE EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE Bc. Iva Štverková Studijní program: Bezpečnostní studia Studijní obor: Bezpečnostní studia Vedoucí práce: RNDr. Alexandr Vondra Diplomová práce Praha 2016 Prohlašuji, že jsem diplomovou práci zpracovala samostatně, uvedla v ní všechny použité prameny a zdroje a v textu řádně vyznačila jejich použití. V…………………dne………………………………. Poděkování Na tomto místě bych ráda poděkovala vedoucímu práce RNDr. Alexandru Vondrovi za rady a čas, který mi věnoval při řešení dané problematiky. Table of Contents Introduction 1 Literature Review 2 Structure 3 1. Theoretical Framework for International Security Institutions 4 1.1 International Relations Theories Applied to International Institutions 4 1.1.1 Realist Theory 5 1.1.2 Neoliberal institutionalism 6 1.1.3. Critical Theory and Constructivism 7 1.1.4 Collective Security 8 1.2 Behavior of alliances and individual states within an alliance 8 1.2.1 The Capability Aggregation Model 9 1.2.2 Benefits an Alliance Can Offer 10 1.2.3 Symmetric/Asymmetric Alliances 11 2. NATO before 9/11 13 2.1 NATO: More that a Mere Security Alliance 13 2.2 History of Crises in the Alliance 15 2.3 Searching for a New Purpose: NATO after the Cold War 17 3. NATO after 9/11 22 3.1 US Perspective 24 3.1.1 NATO from the US perspective 24 3.1.2 9/11 and the United States 27 3.2 9/11 from European perspective 29 3.2.1 Case Study #1: the United Kingdom 32 3.2.2 Case Study #2: Germany 36 3.2.3 Case Study #3: the Czech Republic 41 3.3 NATO Survived 47 Conclusion 49 List of Acronyms 54 Sources 55 Resumé Severoatlantická aliance (NATO) prošla po útocích 11. září 2001 krizí, jež vznikla zejména kvůli odlišnostem ve smýšlení jednotlivých členů Aliance o vhodné reakci na teroristické činy. Zasazení krize do kontextu a pochopení jejích příčit je klíčové pro chápaní Aliance a výzev, kterým NATO bude v budoucnu čelit. Cílem této diplomové práce je vysvětlit proč krize vznikla, co vedlo jednotlivé členy k určité reakci nebo postoji a jak se Alianci podařilo krizi překonat. Práce představuje různé přístupy k chápání bezpečnostních aliancí, jejich cílů a chování. Zkoumá je z pohledu realismu, neoliberalismu, konstruktivismu a dalších teorií mezinárodních vztahů. Snaží se vysvětlit události po 11. září v souvislostech a zahrnuje případové studie postojů Spojeného království, Německa a České Republiky k NATO a americké zahraniční politice po teroristických útocích. Krize v Alianci se vystupňovala kvůli válce v Iráku, kdy se Evropa rozdělila na dvě frakce: první vedená Spojeným královstvím, která válku a Washington podporovala, a druhou protiválečnou vedenou Německem a Francií. Nejednalo se ovšem o první krizi v historii NATO a Alianci se ji podařilo překonat. Navzdory odlišným názorům na válku v Iráku nebo jiné jednotlivé témata, Evropa a Severní Amerika stále sdílí hodnoty a zájmy. Navíc Evropa a Severní Amerika se staly navzájem tak ekonomicky provázanými, že rozchod v politické či bezpečnostní oblasti by znamenal ohrožení životních zájmů všech. Washington si uvědomil cenu spojenců, a že nemůže sám vést dvě války. Volby a následná změny ve vedení Německa, Francie a USA napomohly zlepšení vztahů. V neposlední řadě rovněž sehráli důležitou roli noví členové NATO a země usilující o vstup do Aliance, protože přinesli novou energii a víru v NATO. Resumé The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) underwent a crisis in transatlantic relations during the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. It arose especially due to differences in members’ opinions about the appropriate response to the assault. Understanding the reasons for the crisis and seeing it in a context is crucial for understanding the Alliance and the future challenges NATO may face. The goal of this master’s thesis is to explain why the crisis emerged, why individual members of NATO acted in certain ways, and how the Allies overcame the crisis. The thesis presents different approaches to security alliances, their goals and behavior. It examines security alliances through lenses of realism, neoliberalism, constructivism, and other international relations theories. The thesis puts 9/11 in a context and it includes case studies of attitudes of the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Czech Republic toward the Alliance and U.S. foreigner policy after the 9/11. The crises escalated over the Iraq War when Europe split between UK-led wing, which supported the US, and anti-war wing led by Germany and France. It was not the first crisis in NATO’s history and the Alliance managed to overcome it. Europe and the US continue to share values and interests, in spite of differences over Iraq or other individual issues. Furthermore, Europe and the United States became so interdependent economically and financially that a political or security break would put vital interests of both at risk. Furthermore, Washington realized that it cannot lead two wars alone and that it needs allies. Changes in leadership in Germany, France, and the US also helped to improve relations. Last but not least, the new NATO members and countries aspiring to gain membership proved vital for the Alliance. Introduction The North Atlantic Treaty Organization went through one of the worse crisis in its history in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Shortly after the assault on the United States, the Alliance invoked Article V of the Washington Treaty for the first time in its 52-year history. The Article V contains the principle of collective defence as it calls on all member states to assist each other in case of an attack on one of them; however, it does not fully commit either of them to act. The European members wanted to show solidarity with the United States but they also wanted to make sure that the United States would not bypass them in its response. Even though, the Europe almost completely supported the US efforts in Afghanistan, it did not adopt American „war mentality“. The split in opinions escalated and reached its peak with the War in Iraq. The division wasn’t only between Europe and the United States but also among European states. This thesis will attempt to prove that the crisis in transatlantic relations was not as grave as it might seem at a first sight. Despite the arguments and opposition to each others’ foreign policy on certain issues, NATO members still share impressive amount of values and norms, on which the Alliance stands. There might altercations from time to time due to the Alliance’s democratic nature, but the member states are intertwined to such an extent that neither of them can allow NATO to perish. 9/11 brought new challenges to the security environment as well as to the functioning of the Alliance. NATO was searching for its purpose and role in the new world order since the end of Cold War and it underwent a fundamental transformation. Nevertheless, especially realist and neo-realist scholars believed that the Alliance was no longer relevant and that it had been past its prime. The foreign policy of US President George W. Bush, who had been influenced by this school of thought, was aggressive and is often described as one of the reasons for the transatlantic crisis. However, it is important to realize that European world powers had to give up control of international politics after the world wars and 1 were reduced to only regional powers. Since then, Europe transformed, gained confidence, and slowly found its voice again. Furthermore, European Union became economic power as well due to the economic and political integration, which has bolstered its power as a whole as well as power of its individual member states. This paper will examine the position of European NATO members toward the Alliance after 9/11 and their perception of US actions. Through case studies of United Kingdom, Germany, and the Czech Republic, three main currents in European foreign policy will be identified. The aim of this thesis is to examine what were the goals of foreign policies of European NATO members, what they had in common or how and why they differed, and whether there was a common European policy. It is important to realize that NATO is a democratic institution, and therefore crises will always exist. Close examination suggests that the crisis after 9/11 wasn’t as severe as it might have seemed. The willingness of the member states to overcome it suggests that NATO is still relevant today. Seeing the crisis in a context and examining the reasons that drove the members to act as they did is important in order to understand the Alliance today. Furthermore, there is not enough studies focused on the dilemmas the Czech Republic faced. Such evaluation is necessary to better understand the role CR plays in the Alliance and it can help determine future goals and priorities. Literature Review While writing this thesis I derived from a number of books, articles, and newspapers to create comprehensive analysis. The articles The False Promise of International Institutions from John Mearsheimer and Alliance and Asymmetry: An Alternative to the Capability Aggregation Model of Alliances from James Morrow were very useful for the first chapter focused on theory. The first one examines the rationale behind international institution, the second one focuses solely on security alliances. The monograph NATO in the “New Europe” from Alexandra Gheciu helped me understand the Alliance in the period since its beginning to its transition in the 90s. Stanley Sloan’s Permanent Alliance? NATO and the Transatlantic Bargain from Truman to Obama describes the Alliance to operate on bargaining between Europe and the United States.