Seeing Like a Farmer: Socioecological Complexity of Constructing and Maintaining Ecologically Integrated Smallholder Family Farms by Anil Bhattarai A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Geography and Planning University of Toronto © Copyright by Anil Bhattarai 2019 Seeing Like a Farmer: Socioecological Complexity of Constructing and Maintaining Ecologically Integrated Smallholder Family Farms Anil Bhattarai Doctor of Philosophy Department of Geography and Planning University of Toronto 2019 Abstract This dissertation investigates the political-ecological conditions that led to the emergence and spread of ecological farming practices in Nepal’s Chitwan Valley. It takes a conjunctural approach to examine the spread of different ecological practices in different periods and the roles played by households, government institutions and others in this process of change. The dissertation draws upon data generated through an interdisciplinary qualitative research which utilized mixed-methods including a year-long ethnographic field research in Nepal, primary and secondary literature review, personal experiences, observation, and formal and informal interviews. ii This dissertation shows that the adoption of ecological farming practices resulted from different conjunctural changes within the farming households and beyond. The major factors within the households that pushed for the adoption of ecological practices were: the reduced availability of household labour as children spent increasing amount of time in schools and adults engaged in off-farm activities, the decline of formal and informal access to common pool resources such as grazing lands and forests, and the perceived and/or real biophysical shifts such as intractable pest damage of crops, beneficial effects of multi-cropping, and degradation of soil by the use of chemical fertilizers. These changes were also possible because of changes beyond the households: specific policies and programs adopted by national government agencies, international development agencies, and, after 1990s, non-governmental organizations. These policies included direct support such as through cash subsidies (for biogas) and free distribution of saplings, educational and training programs on ecological management of farms, and formal and informal exchanges of ideas and experiences of ecological practices among farmers. This dissertation also shows that Increased commodification of other aspects of households, such as the education of children, construction of modern homes, and health care, has created challenges for ecological farming. Differentiated capacity for diversification of resource generation such as through migration and off-farm income shapes the possibility for the maintenance of the ecological farms. This dissertation has developed the rubric of ‘seeing like a farmer’ as a conceptual tool to critically assess and examine this phenomenon. This framework integrates 'society' and 'nature,' and expands the focus beyond 'agricultural sector'. iii Acknowledgments (if any) This dissertation took a while – and had a few hiccups. But it is finally here. This work would not have been possible without the help and guidance of my fantastic advisors at the Department of Geography and Planning: Prof. Katharine Rankin and Dr. Mark Hunter. Thank you so much. I will cherish forever the patience with which you dealt with me as I stumbled through iterations after iterations of this work, at times on the verge of giving up. I would like to thank my external examiner Prof. Haroon Akram-Lodhi for all the valuable comments and suggestions he made before and during the exams. I would like to thank Prof. Sue Ruddick for the detailed comments on my dissertation as an internal-external member of the examination committee. I am also indebted to her for introducing me to the Deleuzian ideas that has helped me to make sense of this bewilderingly complex and perennially changing material world I have tried to represent in this work. My graduate committee members Prof. W. Scott Prudham and Dr. Kundan Kumar provided valuable comments and suggestions in the early drafts of the dissertation and doctoral research proposals. Many thanks indeed. I have tried to incorporate my interdisciplinary scholarly trainings in this work. My training in political economy of health at the Center of Social Medicine and Community Health of Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi has been an indispensable part of the approach I have developed over time to make sense of the world around us. I would like to acknowledge my teachers there, Prof. Mohan Rao, Prof. Imrana Qadeer, Prof. Rama Varu and Prof. Ritu Priya for inculcating in me this desire to always link together the seemingly disparate world. My iv anthropological training at University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill has been an important asset as I engaged in my doctoral work as an ethnographer and as I tried to make sense of the seemingly chaotic ‘data’ I gathered and constantly changing world I encountered. Thank you: Prof. Michel Rivkin-Fish, my graduate advisor there, Prof. Arturo Escobar and Prof. Lauren Leve. Prof. Andrea Nightingale – thank you tons for being a good friend and inspiring co-researcher. Some of the work we have done together has also seeped into this dissertation. Most importantly, it will be indispensable part of what I hope to do in the coming days ahead. Sabin, Siru, Parag, Janmanjay, Angshul, Prabhat – thank you all from the bottom of my heart for making me a part of your circle in Toronto. Prof. Angela Miles, thank you for all the encouragements and hospitality. Kamala Gurung, Gaurab Rana, and Rayhan – you guys were amazing. When things looked totally bleak, you were there for me. Thank you for letting me into your home and making me a part of your family. Forever indebted. Thank you Man Poudel, Radha jee, Prabha and Pranika – for hosting me in your house in the early days of my life in Toronto. You were home away from home and you always are. To Man P., thank you for almost 3 decades of friendship. I am indebted forever by the kindness, generosity, and creativity of farmers in Fulbari, Chitwan. Chandra dai, Sita bhauju, Rajkumar, Sheela – you all were amazing as a host to this familiar researcher. Your farm stands testimony to the fact that world’s agriculture could be organized far v more ecologically, aesthetically and humanly. Thank you Bishnu madam, Bhatta ji, and all others who were kind enough to respond to my queries and participate in conversations with me. I have tried to be as accurate as possible in representing the amazingly inspiring works you have done in your farms. Thank you Basanta Ranabhat (Basanta jee) for first introducing me to Chandra dai. Then things took their own course. Your dedication in promoting ecological agriculture is absolute inspiration to me for decades and I have tried to be represent the work you and many others have been doing for decades in Nepal as sincerely as I could. I would like to also thank Govinda Sharma and his family of Hasera Farm in Kavre for hosting me for a few days. Thank you Judith Constant Chase of Everything Organic Nursery. You and Jim Danisch (late) were some of the early people who kindled in me this desire to learn about ecologically sane way of doing farming. You have been absolute inspiration to so many, including, of course, me. Thank you Yam Mall jee for answering my questions about the history of permaculture and sustainable agriculture in Nepal. My grandparents (from the sides of both of my parents) would have been thrilled to know I finished PhD. They were the early inspirations in my thinking deeply about this seemingly simple, but really complex – and capricious – world of farming. The orchard my grandparents from my father’s side had created in Tandi still exists as a testimony to the fact that inspiringly beautiful, highly productive and constantly improving agroecosystems can be created. Thank you. vi My parents have been a constant source of inspiration and encouragement in my life. My sister, Binita’s ‘just-finish-and-come-here’ did some magic. Finish part is done, coming there will happen very soon. My brothers, sister-in-laws, nieces and nephews provided good vibes, and strong support and encouragements. Thank you Keshav dai, Punam bhauju, Yadav dai, Sirjana bhauju, Sunil, Usha, Dipesh, Shraddha, Amulya, Kaavya, Paarav, Divyata, and Syaani. Aja, Ajee, and Swastika –huge thank you. The pomegranate tree still exists, right? Pramod mama, big thank you for constant encouragement in writing, and, back in 1991, for letting me in the farm to do ‘permaculture.’ Aunty, Dr. Elizabeth Enslin – your inspirations are everywhere throughout this work. Also, thank you for editorial help in early draft. Now, my son Apoorva and wife Sujata, I am absolutely thrilled to report that this looooooog journey is finally at an end – well, for a new beginning. Thank you so much for being there with me. Apoorva, you grew up with my seemingly never-ending PhD work. I finally did finish. Fabulous Sujata, now you have got a much needed break from the task of constantly reminding me that I had been sitting under unfinished work! A new beginning awaits! Thank you and big hugs. I would like to make it absolutely clear that all shortcomings are mine and mine only. vii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................................