MAKING AND MAINTAINING METROPOLISES: ENTREPRENEURIAL MUNICIPALISM IN TURKEY by Sude Bahar Beltan A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Sude Bahar Beltan 2018 Making and Maintaining Metropolises: Entrepreneurial Municipalism in Turkey Sude Bahar Beltan Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2018 Abstract This dissertation explores the implications of the public administration and local governance reforms that took place in Turkey in the mid-2000s with a comparative focus on three major metropolitan cities: İstanbul, İzmir, and Diyarbakır. Engaging with the literatures on state rescaling and urban entrepreneurialism, the author analyzes how reforms transformed municipalities into entrepreneurial organizations primarily concerned with territorial competitiveness of their jurisdictions while the central state repositioned itself as a critical actor in urban policy-making. The dissertation research is guided by three critical aspects of urban governance in Turkey: the changing dynamics of intergovernmental relations (national/local and metropolitan/district), the institutional transformation of municipalities (New Public Management restructuring), and emergent urban policies (city branding initiatives, urban transformation projects, and social services). The author argues that variations across three cities indicate how intergovernmental relations imbued with party politics and the local political context are critical in conditioning the scope and content of entrepreneurial action. The author proposes that studies of neoliberal urbanism, which analytically prioritize the political economy perspective, should put cities back into their national context to capture the political and institutional embeddedness of contemporary neoliberal urban governance. ii Acknowledgments It takes a great deal of hard work, patience, and perseverance to complete a Ph.D. In this journey, writing my dissertation was probably the most challenging task. But although it is a lonely job, I was never alone. I was able to do it because of all the exceptional people in my life. I want to start by thanking Edward Schatz for believing in me and my project, and continuing to act as my supervisor even after my dissertation took an “urban” turn. From the beginning, he made it a priority in his busy schedule to read my proto-chapters, chapters, and full drafts, providing substantive and quick feedback. His expertise and analytical approach improved the comparative aspect of this dissertation tremendously. I am grateful for his support and guidance in this journey. I also want to thank my committee members, Richard Stren and Theresa Enright, whose brilliance and expertise in urban politics elevated my analysis exponentially. Richard read my drafts very closely, challenged my arguments only to hone them, took time to patiently edit my writing, and met with me in person several times to discuss and helped me strategize next steps. Theresa played a remarkable role in my engagement with the literature and situating of focus. Her pointed comments and suggestions helped me uncover what it was that I was arguing. I want to thank my internal examiner, Paul Kingston, for taking the time to read my dissertation, his genuine interest in my project, and his constructive comments, which were critical in bringing this dissertation to its next step. I want to thank Patrick Le Galès for agreeing to be my external examiner; his engagement with the content of my dissertation and his excellent comments and constructive criticisms will be instrumental in revising this work for future publication. And I thank Colette Stoeber for her brilliant editorial work; I could not have asked for a better copy editor. My special thanks go to Joseph Carens for being my mentor and my anchor in this journey. He helped restore my faith in my project and encouraged me to complete it after coming back from maternity leave. Leaving aside his brilliance, his humanity and the genuine care and interest he showed me played an essential role in my success. This dissertation would not have been possible without the people I interviewed during my fieldwork in İstanbul, İzmir, and Diyarbakır. I appreciate the time and sincerity of my interviewees, who shared their experiences and the visions and dreams they have for their cities. I am grateful to Azize Yılmaz for being my guide in Diyarbakır on my first-ever visit to the city and connecting me to several interviewees. I also thank Ayşe Sipahioğlu for introducing me to Azize. I thank Yılmaz Gönen in Izmir who played a key role in my interview with the metropolitan mayor. It was Carolynn Branton who navigated me through the administrative stages and hurdles of the Ph.D. program with utmost empathy, calmness, and reassurance. She makes the Department of Political Science a better place. I also want to thank Louis Tentsos for his support in the days leading to the defense. I had the pleasure to work with great people in my time at the University of Toronto. I am especially thankful to Beverly Lewis at the Faculty of Arts and Science; Norma Dotto and Terri Winchester at the Department of Political Science at UTM; and the Trinity College community. I thank my students in POL346 at UTM who made my last year of Ph.D. a much more meaningful one. iii I want to thank my friends in Turkey and Canada who encouraged and supported me in various ways: Ali Arvas, Begüm Uzun, Daniella Levy-Pinto, Dragana Bodružić, Elinor Bray-Collins, Filiz Tutku Aydın, Gizem Pınar Ünveren, Lilian Abou-Tabickh, Lindsey Shorser, Mehtap Kural, Olga Kesarchuk, Serdar Tekin, Süheyla Nil Mustafa, and Zeynep Başkurt. I am grateful for their friendship and cherish the times we spent together. Özlem Aslan has been more than just a friend I have had since my undergraduate years. She became my confidant, sounding board, mentor, and a sister I trust. She closely read chapters in this dissertation, helped me to better organize my ideas, calmed me down before my deadlines, babysat my daughter so that I could write, and helped me solve my everyday problems with utmost empathy, sincerity, and charm. My heartfelt thanks to her for being by my side in this journey. I am blessed in this life to have a family like mine. Words cannot express my gratitude to my parents, Suzan and Mehmet Beltan, my sisters, Arzu and Nihal, and my niece Fulya who have believed in me, supported me, cheered on me, and loved me unconditionally. My parents always believed in the power of education, and perhaps because their own schooling was cut short because of circumstances and responsibilities, they made sure we never had to give up on our right to education. Annecim ve babacım, ben ikinizin yerine de okumuş oldum. My father has been my role model with his work ethic and sense of duty. My mother has been a constant source of inspiration with her strength, unwavering hopefulness, and dedication. She also showed me how you can never retire from being a mother when she took care of my daughter in Turkey and Canada so that I could finish writing the dissertation. I am happy that she was by my side when I completed it all. My sister Arzu always knew how to cheer me up with her infectious laugh and uplifting praise. My sister Nihal, who has the biggest heart of anyone I know, supported me in so many caring ways: from sending gifts to emailing me municipal news and websites and helping me with her outstanding computer skills. I am looking forward to sharing the convocation ceremony with her— just as we shared my first reading festival in grade one. Fulya, the best niece an aunt can ever ask for: I am especially grateful for her support in the summer of 2017. Her presence and calmness made the finishing stages more bearable. This Ph.D. was not just an educational episode in my life. My coming to Canada brought two special people into my life. I want to thank my husband, Mohamed Masoud, for being such a loving father to our daughter and his continuous support even from the other side of the continent. His motivation and love pushed me to the finish line. And to my daughter Saranur, the light of my life, I owe you the biggest thanks. You were so understanding and so helpful for a toddler when I went to the library to write for long hours. Being your mother is the best thing that ever happened to me. You are the reason I now have this degree—because you inspire me to be a better version of myself. I love you. I dedicate this dissertation to all my family. iv Table of Contents List of Tables and Maps vi List of Acronyms vii List of Appendices viii Chapter One – Introduction 1 Chapter Two – Restructuring Local Governance in Turkey 38 Chapter Three – İstanbul, The “National Champion” of Cities 100 Chapter Four – İzmir, The Lagged or Obstructed Metropolis? 143 Chapter Five – Diyarbakır, The Politicized Metropolis 188 Chapter Six – Conclusion 227 Bibliography 260 Appendices 273 v List of Tables and Maps Table 1 – Urban Entrepreneurialism Map 1 – İstanbul Province in Turkey Map 2 – İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality and District Municipalities Map 3 – İzmir Province in Turkey Map 4 – İzmir Metropolitan Municipality and District Municipalities Map 5 – Diyarbakır Province in Turkey Map 6 – Diyarbakır Metropolitan Municipality and District Municipalities vi List of Acronyms AKP – Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party) ANAP – Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party) BDP –Barış