University of Pécs Doctoral School of Linguistics Doctoral Programme in Applied Linguistics PROCESSES AND OUTCOMES OF SOCIETAL MULTILINGUALISM IN THE VOC-GOVERNED CAPE 1652-1795 Richter Borbála Mária Consultant: Dr. Kassai Ilona Pécs 2010 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ 9 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1 .............................................................................................................. 15 Beginnings ............................................................................................................ 15 1.1. Status quo ante........................................................................................... 17 1.1.1. The Portuguese : creating the Lusophone network ............................. 17 1.1.2. Power shifts in Europe and the United Provinces ............................. 19 1.1.3. The Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie: company and government . 22 1.1.3.1. The Cape: possession and premises of the VOC ............................. 24 1.1.4. Language at home and at sea ............................................................... 26 1.1.4.1. Languages and problems of communication ................................. 26 1.1.4.2. Dutch dialects and their many kin ................................................. 28 Chapter 2 .............................................................................................................. 37 150 Years of Company Rule .................................................................................. 37 2.1. Introduction: from landing to bankruptcy ................................................... 37 2.1.1. Arrival and dispersal............................................................................. 38 2.2. Existing European structures and unforeseen developments ...................... 39 2.2.1. Government of the Cape ...................................................................... 39 2.2.2. The governed: the free burghers .......................................................... 41 2.2.3. The owned: the slaves.......................................................................... 44 2.2.3.1. The institution and justification of slavery by the Dutch ................ 45 2 2.2.3.2. Slavery at the Cape ........................................................................ 48 2.2.3.3. Sources of the slaves ..................................................................... 49 2.2.3.4. Population growth......................................................................... 51 2.2.3.5. The Cape remains a slave-based economy .................................... 54 2.2.4. Betwixt and between: .......................................................................... 55 2.2.4.1. The status of slaves and free blacks ............................................... 55 2.2.4.2. A further layer of society ............................................................... 57 2.3 From De Kaap into Africa : the expansion of the colony ............................... 58 2.3.1. Conflict and compromise with the Khoekhoen in the vicinity of De Kaap ...................................................................................................................... 58 2.3.2The push outwards, into Africa: the trekboer on the frontier ................. 62 Chapter 3 .............................................................................................................. 68 Languages at the Cape .......................................................................................... 68 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 68 3.2. The Honourable Company and its servants ................................................. 69 3.2.1. Political and economic structure .......................................................... 70 3.2.2. The VOC rhythm of life at the Cape ...................................................... 72 3.2.3. VOC administration .............................................................................. 74 3.3. The language of the VOC servants .............................................................. 75 3.4. VOC language policy ................................................................................... 78 3.4.1. Language in education and the church ................................................. 80 3.4.1.1. The church at the Cape ................................................................. 81 3 3.4.1.2. Formal education .......................................................................... 83 3.4.1.3. The population mix ....................................................................... 85 Chapter 4 .............................................................................................................. 88 The languages and language use of the colonists ................................................. 88 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 88 4.2. Dutch and the Dutch ................................................................................... 88 4.2.1. Local and European dialects ................................................................. 89 4.2.2. Dialect retention and convergence ...................................................... 91 4.2.3. Dialects in contact ................................................................................ 92 4.2.3.1. Koine formation ............................................................................ 92 4.2.3.2. Elimination of difference ............................................................... 95 4.2.4. Position of Dutch at the Cape ............................................................... 99 4.3. German and the Germans ......................................................................... 100 4.3.1. Germanic dialects .............................................................................. 100 4.3.2. The transient Germans....................................................................... 102 4.3.2.1. Soldiers of the Cape garrison ....................................................... 103 4.4. French and the Huguenots ........................................................................ 104 4.4.1. The Huguenots ................................................................................... 105 4.4.2. French refugees in the Netherlands ................................................... 105 4.4.3. Huguenots at the Cape....................................................................... 106 4.4.3.1. Language issues........................................................................... 107 4.4.3.2. Schooling..................................................................................... 108 4 4.4.3.3. Outcome: language shift ............................................................. 109 Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................ 116 The languages and language use of the dispossessed: slaves ............................. 116 5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 116 5.2. Languages and language policies of the VOC in the East ........................... 116 5.2.1. Population groups in the VOC head-quarters of Batavia ..................... 121 5.2.2. Education policy as made and practised in Batavia: ........................... 122 5.2.3. The failure of VOC pro-Dutch language policy .................................... 127 5.2.4. Other major VOC settlements and VOC language policy there ........... 130 5.2.5. Dutch as it was spoken in the East ..................................................... 134 5.2. Slaves ....................................................................................................... 142 5.2.1. The places of origin ............................................................................ 142 5.2.2. Locally born slaves ............................................................................. 144 5.2.3. Later generations ............................................................................... 145 5.2.4. The Languages of the slaves ............................................................... 146 5.2.4.1. Portuguese of a sort .................................................................... 147 5.2.4.2. Portuguese as a language of the East .......................................... 148 5.2.4.3. Malay and Malayo-Portuguese .................................................... 150 5.2.4.4. Languages of the slaves at the Cape ............................................ 151 5.2.4.4.1 Evidence of slave language use .............................................. 152 5.2.5. The language scenario at the Cape ..................................................... 154 5.2.5.1. Acculturation .............................................................................. 156 5 5.2.5.1.1. Acculturation at the Cape ..................................................... 159 5.2.5.1.2. Acculturation of the slaves at the Cape................................. 161 5.2.5.2. Language Setting: Cosmopolitan, multilingual, multifunctional Cape Town............................................................................................................163