ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE SAFEGUARDING OF MINORITY LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS IN MODERN ITALY: The Cases of Sardinia and Sicily Maria Chiara La Sala Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds Department of Italian September 2004 This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to assess attitudes of speakers towards their local or regional variety. Research in the field of sociolinguistics has shown that factors such as gender, age, place of residence, and social status affect linguistic behaviour and perception of local and regional varieties. This thesis consists of three main parts. In the first part the concept of language, minority language, and dialect is discussed; in the second part the official position towards local or regional varieties in Europe and in Italy is considered; in the third part attitudes of speakers towards actions aimed at safeguarding their local or regional varieties are analyzed. The conclusion offers a comparison of the results of the surveys and a discussion on how things may develop in the future. This thesis is carried out within the framework of the discipline of sociolinguistics. ii DEDICATION Ai miei figli Youcef e Amil che mi hanno distolto spesso dai miei studi A mio marito Samir Ai miei genitori Linda e Mimmo iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT i DEDICATION ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT x PRELIMINARY DECLARATION xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii CHAPTER ONE:- INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Aim of the study 1 1.2 The definition of local or regional varieties 2 1.3 Local or regional varieties and identities 4 1.4 Action aimed at the safeguarding of local or regional varieties 5 1.5 The case studies 6 1.6 Limitations 7 1.7 Structure of the thesis 7 CHAPTER TWO:- THE DEFINITION OF ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘DIALECT’, 9 AND ‘MINORITY LANGUAGE’ 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Language and dialect 9 2.3 Some issues regarding the concept of minority language 14 2.4 Conclusion 19 iv CHAPTER THREE:- THE PRESENT POSITION OF LINGUISTIC 21 MINORITIES WITHIN THE EUROPEAN UNION 3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 The status of EU national languages 21 3.3 Linguistic minority protection in the EU 23 3.4 European institutions working in favour of regional or minority languages 26 3.4.1 The European Parliament 26 3.4.2 The European Commission 27 3.4.3 The European Bureau for lesser-used languages 28 3.4.4 Council of Europe 29 3.4.5 The Charter on Regional or Minority Languages 30 3.5 Projects financed in 2000 by the European Commission to promote and 34 safeguard regional or minority languages and cultures 3.6 Future action for the safeguarding of minority languages in the European 37 Union 3.7 Conclusion 39 CHAPTER FOUR:- LINGUISTIC MINORITIES AND DIALECTS IN 40 ITALY FROM POLITICAL UNIFICATION TO THE PRESENT DAY 4.1 Introduction 40 4.2 National language, minority languages, and dialects from unification to 1921 40 4.2.1 The linguistic situation in Italy at unification 40 4.2.2 The Manzoni and Ascoli controversy on the role of dialects in the 43 process of standard language acquisition 4.2.3 Dialects and minority languages at unification 46 4.2.3.1 Sardinian 46 4.2.3.2 Friulian 48 4.2.3.3 Sicilian 49 4.2.3.4 Piedmontese 50 4.2.3.5 French in Val D’Aosta 51 V 4.3. Attitudes and policies towards dialects and minority languages during the 53 Fascist years 4.3.1 ‘Dal dialetto alia lingua’ 53 4.3.2 Sicily and Sardinia 56 4.3.3 The position of minority groups in the Fascist period 57 4.3.3.1 Education 58 4.3.3.2 Family names 59 4.3.3.3 Place names 60 4.3.3.4 Public notices and administration 61 4.4 Linguistic minorities in Italy and their regulation in the present legislation 62 4.4.1 Article 6 of the Italian constitution 63 4.4.2 Ways of realising the protection of minority groups in Italy 64 4.4.2.1 Self-government of their territory 64 4.4.2.2 The right to create political parties or similar associations 64 4.4.2.3 Cultural autonomy 65 4.4.3 Protected and neglected minority languages 65 4.4.4 Some considerations on law 482 (1999), for the protection of the 67 linguistic minorities living in Italy 4.5 Conclusion 72 CHAPTER FIVE:- LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY IN MODERN 74 ITALY 5.1 Introduction 74 5.2 Initiatives in the post-unification period 74 5.3 Local or regional varieties and local or regional identity 79 5.4 Assessment of the methods employed to safeguard the local variety 85 5.4.1 Teaching the local variety 87 5.4.2 The safeguarding of local varieties online 93 5.4.2.1 The amis de Lenghe Furlane in Toronto 96 5.4.3 The linguistic aspect of the websites 99 5.4.4 The cultural aspect of the websites 105 5.5 Publications and competitions 111 5.6 Legal status 116 vi 5.7 Conclusion 121 CHAPTER SIX:- THE SAFEGUARDING OF SARDINIAN AND 126 SICILIAN IN CONTEMPORARY ITALY 6.1 Introduction 126 6.2 Sardinian 126 6.2.1 Websites and electronic sources 126 6.2.2 Regional legislation 134 6.2.3 Attempts to create a standard 136 6.2.4 Competitions 139 6.2.5 The teaching of the language 140 6.2.6 The Press 142 6.2.7 Literary production and studies on the language 143 6.2.8 Political parties 145 6.3 Sicilian 146 6.3.1 Websites 146 6.3.2 Regional legislation 148 6.3.3 The teaching of the language 149 6.3.4 Attempts to create a standard 150 6.3.5 Studies on the language and literary production 153 6.4 Conclusion 155 CHAPTER SEVEN:- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 158 7.1 Introduction 158 7.2 Method adopted for data collection 158 7.3 The questionnaire 159 7.4 Structure of the questionnaire 159 7.5 Variables adopted in the analysis of the questionnaires 162 7.6 The sample frame 163 7.7 Conclusion 169 Vll CHAPTER EIGHT:- ANALYSIS OF ATTITUDES TOWARDS 170 SARDINIAN AND REACTIONS TO POSSIBLE WAYS OF SAFEGUARDING IT 8.1 Introduction 170 8.2 The overall analysis 170 8.2.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour of the urban sample 170 8.2.2 The distinction between language and dialect 176 8.2.3 The link between Sardinian language and Sardinian identity 178 8.2.4 Reactions to measures to safeguard Sardinian 181 8.2.5 Reactions to legislative measures 185 8.3 Categories 187 8.3.1 Analysis based on the sex of the respondents 187 8.3.1.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour 187 8.3.1.2 The distinction between language and dialect 189 8.3.1.3 The link between local language and local identity 190 8.3.1.4 Reactions to measures to safeguard Sardinian 193 8.3.1.5 Reactions to legislative measures 195 8.3.2 Analysis based on age groups 196 8.3.2.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour 196 8.3.2.2 Distinction between language and dialect 199 8.3.2.3 The link between local language and local identity 201 8.3.2.4 Reaction to measures to safeguard Sardinian 203 8.3.2.5 Reaction to legislative measures 204 8.3.3 Analysis based on social status 206 8.3.3.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour 206 8.3.3.2 Distinction between language and dialect 208 8.3.3.3 The link between local language and local identity 209 8.3.3.4 Reactions to measures to safeguard Sardinian 210 8.3.3.5 Reaction to legislative measures 212 8.4 Conclusion 212 viii CHAPTER NINE:- ANALYSIS OF ATTITUDES TOWARDS 218 SICILIAN AND REACTIONS TO POSSIBLE WAYS OF SAFEGUARDING IT 9.1 Introduction 218 9.2 Overall analysis 218 9.2.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour of the urban sample 218 9.2.2 The distinction between language and dialect 220 9.2.3 The link between Sicilian language and Sicilian identity 224 9.2.4 Reactions to measures to safeguard Sardinian 227 9.2.5 Reactions to national legislative measures 231 9.3 Categories 232 9.3.1 Analysis based on the sex of the respondents 232 9.3.1.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour 232 9.3.1.2 The distinction between language and dialect 235 9.3.1.3 The link between local language and local identity 236 9.3.1.4: Reactions to measures to safeguard Sicilian 237 9.3.1.5 Reactions to national legislative measures 240 9.3.2 Analysis based on age groups 241 9.3.2.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour 241 9.3.2.2 Distinction between language and dialect 245 9.3.2.3 The link between local language and local identity 246 9.3.2.4 Reactions to measures to safeguard Sicilian 249 9.3.2.5 Reaction to national legislative measures 253 9.3.3 Analysis based on the social status of the sample 255 9.3.3.1 Linguistic competence and behaviour 256 9.3.3.2 Distinction between language and dialect 259 9.3.3.3 The link between local language and local identity 260 9.3.3.4 Reaction to measures to safeguard Sicilian 262 9.3.3.5 Reaction to national legislative measures 265 9.4 Conclusion 267 IX CHAPTER TEN:- CONCLUSION 271 10.1 General conclusions 271 10.2 Analysis of attitudes 272 10.3 Discussion of the results of the analysis 275 10.4 Final considerations 278 10.5 Recommendations for further research 281 REFERENCES.