English in China: The Impact of the Global Language on China's Language Situation Author Gil, Jeffrey Allan Published 2005 Thesis Type Thesis (PhD Doctorate) School School of International Business and Asian Studies DOI https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/1486 Copyright Statement The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/365962 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au ENGLISH IN CHINA THE IMPACT OF THE GLOBAL LANGUAGE ON CHINA’S LANGUAGE SITUATION Jeffrey Allan Gil BA with First Class Honours in Languages and Applied Linguistics, Grad. Cert. Second Language Teaching (TESOL) School of International Business and Asian Studies, Griffith Business School Griffith University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2005 ABSTRACT The language situation of today’s world is drastically different from that which existed in the past. English has become the global language –it is used more and is more widespread than any other language has ever been. At the same time we are faced with large-scale language endangerment which could result in the extinction of half or more of the world’s languages. While not the only reason for language endangerment, the status of English as the global language has important consequences for all other languages and therefore deserves to be studied carefully. However, exactly what English means for other languages and cultures is far from simple and there is no general agreement on this issue. English has been seen as a destructive language, a pluralistic language and as an irrelevant language. This thesis explores the issue of global English as it applies to China. English language learning and teaching has been, and by all indications will continue to be, an important part of China’s reform and modernisation. China is also an ethnically and linguistically diverse country with 55 minority nationalities and over 80 languages. What does the spread of English mean for China’s language situation? Drawing on data gained through fieldwork and published sources, I argue that English in China is multifaceted, that is it has destructive, pluralistic and irrelevant elements. English is now used more and has higher status in China than at any time in the past and this has raised some concerns. However, English is not displacing Chinese language or culture. English is actually taking on Chinese features in both form and function. The Chinese language, far from being threatened, is currently expanding both in China and the world at large. Much effort has gone into promoting putonghua and there is great interest in learning Chinese in many parts of the world. China’s minority languages, like those elsewhere, are under varying degrees of threat. However, English is not the main reason for this situation. At the present time at least it has relatively little presence in minority areas. Despite the fact that it is not destroying China’s languages and cultures, English remains a significant issue for China and must be dealt with thoughtfully and carefully, especially among the minority nationalities. I argue that it is possible for China to acquire English without losing its linguistic diversity. Whether this can be achieved is a question of the resources and political will required to do so rather than any inherent difficulty with speaking two or more languages. To this end, the Context Approach is put forward as a possible way to improve English language teaching and learning among the minorities. In light of the results of this study, I suggest new directions for research, both on language issues in China and in general. I also argue for a new approach to our study of English as a global language and language endangerment. We need to appreciate the complexities of English on a local level as well as a global level and focus our attention more on how English can be taught to speakers of endangered languages in such a way that does not lead to language loss. STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. Signed: Date: TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Statement of Originality Table of Contents List of Tables Note on Chinese Names Note on Spelling Acknowledgements Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Research Problem 3 1.3 Central Argument 8 1.4 Theory, Methodology and Sources 9 1.5 Why is this Research Important? 21 1.5.1 Language as a Valuable Resource 21 1.5.2 Minorities and their Languages in the Chinese Context 23 1.5.3 Gaps in the Academic Literature 24 1.6 Structure of the Thesis 25 1.7 Conclusion 29 Chapter 2: The Language Situation of Today’s World 2.1 Introduction 30 2.2 Overview of the World’s Languages 31 2.3 Changes in the World’s Language Situation 37 2.3.1 Development of Language and Long Standing Equilibrium 42 2.3.2 The First Big Punctuation: Agriculture and its Consequences 44 2.3.3 The Punctuation Spreads: European Expansion 47 2.3.4 The Next Big Punctuation: Economic and Political Power 49 2.3.5 Into Uncharted Territory: Languages in a Globalising World 52 2.4 The Making of a Global Language 60 2.5 Arguments About English and Other Languages 69 2.5.1 English as a Destructive Language 70 2.5.2 English as a Pluralistic Language 73 2.5.3 English as an Irrelevant Language 76 2.6 Conclusion 77 Chapter 3: The English Language in China: A Sociolinguistic Profile 3.1 Introduction 78 3.2 English in China: Historical Background 79 3.2.1 The Origins and Early History of ELT in China 80 3.2.2 ELT in the Republican Period (1911-49) 83 3.2.3 ELT in Early Communist China (1949-66) 85 3.2.4 ELT in the Cultural Revolution Period (1966-76) 87 3.2.5 ELT and China’s Open Door (1976-89) 89 3.2.6 ELT at Present and into the Future 91 3.3 The Current Use and Status of English in China 94 3.3.1 Users of English 95 3.3.2 Uses of English 96 3.3.2.1 Interpersonal Function 97 Science, Technology and Research 97 Media 99 Business 102 Tourism and International Connections 103 3.3.2.2 Instrumental Function 104 Formal Education 105 Informal Education 109 3.3.2.3 Regulative Function 112 3.4 A Critical Moment in the Interaction of English and China 113 3.5 Conclusion 116 Chapter 4:English with Chinese Characteristics 4.1 Introduction 117 4.2 Appropriation of Form: China English 118 4.2.1 What is China English? 118 4.2.2 Characteristics of China English 121 Pronunciation 121 Vocabulary 122 Syntax 124 Discourse Patterns 125 4.3 Appropriation of Functions: What the Chinese Do with English 128 4.3.1 Talking Back 129 Story 130 Description 131 A Story About the Main English Speaking Countries 131 4.3.2 Questioning the Authority of Native Speakers 132 Grammar Debate 133 4.3.3 Having Fun with English 135 Lunch with Students 135 Turning a Mistake into a Joke 136 English Brightens the Mood 136 4.4 Chinese Methods of Learning and Teaching English 137 4.4.1 Why Language Teaching in China is Not the Same as in the West 138 4.4.2 Chinese Students’ Perceptions of Western Teachers and Methods 146 4.5 Conclusion 153 Chapter 5: The Chinese Language in China and the World 5.1 Introduction 157 5.2 Defining Chinese 159 5.3 Promotion and Spread of Putonghua Within China 166 5.3.1 Definition and Background of Putonghua 167 5.3.2 Promotion of Putonghua 171 5.3.3 Results of Putonghua Promotion 173 5.4 The Chinese Language Outside of China 182 5.4.1 The Current International Situation of Chinese 183 5.4.2 Interest in Learning Chinese 188 Chinese Language Learning in Asia 192 Chinese Language Learning in Europe and the West 195 Chinese Language Learning in Africa 201 5.5 Conclusion 203 Chapter 6: The Impact of English on Minority Languages in China 6.1 Introduction 205 6.2 Overview of Minorities in China 207 6.3 Overview of Minority Languages 216 6.4 The Current Use and Status of Minority Languages: Policy and Reality 225 6.5 English and China’s Minorities 233 6.6 The Uses and Users of English in Minority Areas 235 6.6.1 Limited and Superficial Use of English 236 Official Signs 236 Commercial Signs 237 6.6.2 Limited Knowledge of English 238 Greetings and Attention Getting Phrases 238 Students and Teachers as the Main English Speaking Group 240 6.6.3 Korean Opting for Japanese 241 6.7 Mixed Feelings About English 242 6.7.1 Desire to Learn English 243 6.7.2 English as a Potential Threat to Minority Languages? 244 6.8 Conclusion 246 Chapter 7: Prospects and Challenges for Maintaining Linguistic Diversity in China 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 The Case for Minority Languages, Chinese and English 250 7.3 Multilingualism and China’s Minorities 251 7.4 Education Policy and Reality Among China’s Minorities 261 7.4.1 Minority Education Policy 262 7.4.2 Educational Resources Among the Minorities 267 7.5 The Context Approach for the Improvement of English Language 271 Teaching 7.6 Conclusion 278 Chapter 8: Conclusion 8.1 Introduction 280 8.2 Summary of Findings 281 8.2.1 The Situation of English in China 282 8.2.2 The Situation of Chinese in China and the World 283 8.2.3 The Situation of Minority Languages in China 284 8.3 What do the Findings of this Study Tell Us? 285 8.3.1 English as a Global Language 286 8.3.2 Language Endangerment in the World 287 8.4 Contribution of the Thesis 288 8.4.1 Language as a Topic in Globalisation Studies 288 8.4.2 New Directions in the Study of China’s