The Interdisciplinary Journal of Place-Based Conservation | volume 36/3 | 2020 PSFPARKS STEWARDSHIP FORUM Humanizing the Seas A Case for Integrating the Arts and Humanities into Ocean Literacy and Stewardship CITATION Johnson, Dana, Sara Brune, Dani T. Dagan, Erica Meier, Emily J. Wilkins, and Hongchao Zhang. 2020. A holistic strategy for carbon reduction programs in parks and protected areas: Leveraging three “fixes.” Parks Stewardship Forum 36(3): 477–482. A DOI for this citation is available at: https://escholarship.org/uc/psf Plastic Catch • Susan Schultz porcelain and wood sculpture A holistic strategy for carbon reduction programs in parks and PSFPARKS STEWARDSHIP FORUM protected areas: Leveraging three “fixes” Dana Johnson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Sara Brune, North Carolina State University Dani T. Dagan, Clemson University Erica Meier, Clemson University Emily J. Wilkins, Utah State University Hongchao Zhang, Utah State University Corresponding author Dani T. Dagan Clemson University Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management 263 Lehotsky Hall Clemson, SC 29634 [email protected] Abstract Anthropogenic climate change is a systemic threat to conservation goals and society at large, and parks and protected areas (PPAs) are uniquely positioned to play an important role in mitigating this crisis. Reducing global carbon emissions is critical for tackling climate change and we believe PPAs serve an important role in facilitating these reductions. Drawing from Thomas Heberlein’s framing of cognitive, technological, and structural fixes, and particularly the lesson that the most effective approaches include all three, we discuss ways that PPA managers can leverage each fix to reduce global carbon emissions. We present the three fixes as pillars of a holistic carbon emission mitigation approach in PPAs and use examples to contextualize each type of fix. However, each PPA is characterized by context-dependent attributes that require climate change “fixes” to be tailored to unique social, cultural, physical, and natural conditions for maximizing long-term sustainable solutions. Therefore, managers who seek to implement or expand carbon emission mitigation strategies may refer to this article, and the examples included herein, as a framework to identify the strengths of their current approaches and to explore areas that can be further developed. Introduction Global climate change, largely driven by increasing ecosystem health and human enjoyment of landscapes, concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, play an important role in mitigating carbon emissions threatens an enormous number of systems worldwide, and reducing the impacts of climate change on PPAs including parks and protected areas (PPAs). The and their surrounding socio-ecological systems. socio-ecological impacts of anthropogenic climate change have left PPAs vulnerable to threats such as Many PPAs are leading extensive efforts to combat the increasing temperatures, decreasing precipitation, and impacts of anthropogenic climate change, including outsized biophysical effects (Gonzalez et al. 2018). implementing strategies and innovative approach- These changes are also impacting the high-quality es for reducing emissions or sequestering carbon to experience that many PPAs provide to visitors around conserve ecosystems and their services (Manning et the globe, which can lead to cascading negative effects al. 2016). For example, several protected area manage- on local economies that rely on tourism, for instance ment plans include long-term strategies for becoming (Halofsky et al. 2018). Altered ecosystem function carbon neutral, a goal already achieved by Golden and extended visitor use seasons as a result of climate Gate National Recreation Area in the US. This goal change may have long-lasting negative impacts on vis- has been upheld by partner organizations committed itor experiences, PPA infrastructure, and biodiversity to reducing carbon emissions in PPAs, exemplified by (Halofsky et al. 2018). Public land management agen- initiatives such as the Go Zero program of the US Fish cies, which often hold dual mandates of maximizing and Wildlife Service and the Conservation Fund, which PSF 36/3 | 2020 477 provided carbon offsets for planting native trees in To extend efforts beyond modifying human cogni- national wildlife refuges (North American Intergovern- tion, Heberlein describes two additional approaches mental Committee on Cooperation for Wilderness and for changing attitudes, and perhaps behavior. The Protected Area Conservation 2012). Structural changes technological fix requires altering a component of the have also been adopted to reduce carbon emissions in environment using technology or engineering, bypass- PPAs, such as using electric buses to transport people ing human behavior. For example, supplying power in Zion and Yosemite National Parks, while interpretive plants with renewable energy is a technological fix that initiatives in numerous PPAs aim to educate visitors reduces carbon emissions from electricity use. Because about climate change and individual emission reduc- attitudes toward such alterations may be unknown or tion strategies. Finally, by their nature, PPA designa- controversial, Heberlein warns about unintended con- tions often include protections against unbounded sequences that may arise from relying on the techno- extractive activities, protecting charismatic landscapes logical fix. and wildlife, and thus are innately part of the solution to some extent (Manning et al. 2016). However, there The most effective approach for changing human are ample opportunities for PPA managers to expand behavior, according to Heberlein, is the structural fix, current initiatives for reducing carbon emissions. which entails modifying the context in which behavior While several effective efforts have been made by occurs. In Heberlein’s classic example of the structural managers of PPAs to mitigate global carbon emissions, fix, to minimize the number of Styrofoam cups used we posit that long-term, sustainable solutions would by employees in an office, replacing Styrofoam with benefit from framing strategies around holistic changes a more sustainable material will alter the system and to protected area systems. foster a change in human behavior. Heberlein suggests that this fix will likely be most successful for changing Rather than identifying novel solutions for PPAs to human behavior because it requires changes to the sys- mitigate carbon emissions, we suggest reframing tem, rather than relying solely on individual behaviors current initiatives to maximize the longevity of sus- or technological components of the system, and will tainable solutions. We will explore potential solutions encourage adoption of new social norms that promote through Heberlein’s (2012) “three fixes” framework, the adoption of long-term sustainable behaviors. Crit- which delineates three approaches to changing individ- ically, Heberlein notes that it is important to leverage ual attitudes and behavior: cognitive, technological, and all three approaches simultaneously to change human structural fixes. We aim to present a vision of holistic behaviors in the context of sustainable solutions. carbon reduction initiatives in PPAs and to provide managers a framework for identifying strengths and To elucidate how PPAs can play a role in mitigating opportunities in existing or future approaches to miti- global carbon emissions, the three fixes can help guide gating carbon emissions. specific solutions that target different aspects of hu- man behavior and the environment. While examples The three fixes: Cognitive, technological, and structural of all three fixes have already been adopted by many In his 2012 book Navigating Environmental Attitudes, the PPA managers, we suggest that leveraging all three in sociologist Thomas Heberlein posited that policy- tandem can strategically promote long-term solutions makers or practitioners interested in reducing en- for mitigating carbon emissions and, thus, combatting vironmental degradation “fix” distinct aspects of a climate change. system using interdisciplinary expertise to encourage pro-environmental attitudes and behavior. To educate Cognitive fixes. Promoting pro-environmental be- the public, the cognitive fix provides individuals with haviors through the cognitive fix is a popular approach new information about an environmental system to and, in the context of PPAs, often includes developing influence attitudes and behavior. This fix emphasizes environmental education and interpretation efforts. individual responsibility to modify behavior in light Although evidence indicates structural and technologi- of new information in a way that benefits the envi- cal fixes can be more effective in promoting sustainable ronment. However, while education is important for behaviors, we posit that cognitive fixes can build on changing behavior, Heberlein and subsequent research- existing PPA management priorities and contribute ers acknowledge that education alone is unlikely to to the holistic behavior change efforts we envisage in change attitudes and behaviors. Not only can attitudes this article. We believe that high-quality cognitive fixes be difficult to change, but research related to the cor- include: (1) environmental education and interpre- relation between attitudes and behavior is inconclusive tation efforts that emphasize hands-on activities and (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002). place-based learning,