Language and People in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria: A comparative study. Georgia Curran 1st November 2002 A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of a Bachelor or Art (Hons) degree to the Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Archaeology. Supervisors: Dr Mary Laughren and Dr John Bradley ii DECLARATION I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without necessary acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person where due reference is not made in the text. Signed: Date: 1st November 2002 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page………………………………………………………………………………………………i Declaration ……………………………………………………………………………………………ii Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………..iii List of Maps………………………………………………………………………………………….vii List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………….viii List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………………….ix Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………..x Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………xi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION..…………………………………………………………………..1 1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….1 1.1.1 Nature of the problem…………………………………………………………………………………...1 1.1.2 The methods of historical linguistics: a European example……………………………………….3 1.1.3 Case study……………………………………………………………………………………….………..5 1.2 Background……………………………………………………………………………………….6 1.2.1 Classification of Australian languages……………………………………………………………….6 1.2.2 The Pama-Nyungan language expansion…………………………………………………………….8 1.3 Outline of case study……………………………………………………………………………...9 1.3.1 The languages……………………………………………………………………………………….……9 1.3.2 Lexical categories to be examined…………………………………………………………………….9 1.4 Rationale…………………………………………………………………………………………10 1.5 Aims of Research………………………………………………………………………………...10 1.6 Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………..10 1.6.1 Comparative linguistics……………………………………………………………………………….10 1.6.2 Data Collection…………………………………………………………………………………………12 1.6.3 Cognate count using lexico-statistics………………………………………………………………..13 1.6.4 Comparison of lexical data……………………………………………………………………………14 1.7 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………..16 1.7.1 Preliminary methodological concerns………………………………………………………………16 iv 1.7.2 Development of historical linguistics………………………………………………………………..17 1.7.3 Historical linguistics in Australia……………………………………………………………………18 1.7.4 Problems with lexico-statistics……………………………………………………………………….18 1.7.5 Assumptions of the comparative method……………………………………………………………19 1.7.6 Language and indigenous identity…………………………………………………………………..20 1.8 General problems and assumptions of this thesis…………………………………………….21 1.8.1 Problems………………………………………………………………………………………………..21 1.8.2 Assumptions…………………………………………………………………………………………….21 1.9 Outline of thesis content………………………………………………………………………..22 1.10 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….22 CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK………………………………………………...24 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………...24 2.2 Accounts of prehistory in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria…………………………………24 2.2.1 Archaeological evidence…………………………………………………………………………………24 2.2.2 Paleogeological evidence……………………………………………………………………………….29 2.2.3 Ethnographic evidence…………………………………………………………………………………..32 2.2.4 The Aboriginal oral tradition…………………………………………………………………………..35 2.2.5 Linguistic evidence………………………………………………………………………………………38 2.3 Background to the interplay between language and culture…………………………………43 2.3.1 The language and culture connection………………………………………………………………….43 2.3.2 Language and cultural identity…………………………………………………………………………44 2.4 The value of comparative linguistics to anthropology………………………………………...45 2.4.1 American development…………………………………………………………………………………..46 2.4.2 European development…………………………………………………………………………………..46 2.4.3 Australian situation………………………………………………………………………………………47 2.5 Recent collaboration of linguistics and anthropology………………………………………...48 2.6 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………49 CHAPTER 3. RESULTS OF CASE STUDY……………………………………………………...50 3.1 Introduction to case study………………………………………………………………………50 v 3.2 Comparison of pronouns……………………………………………………………………….50 3.2.1 Warluwarric sub-group………………………………………………………………………………….50 3.2.2 Garrwa and Wanyi……………………………………………………………………………………….54 3.2.3 Marra………………………………………………………………………………………………………56 3.2.4 Yukulta…………………………………………………………………………………………………….57 3.3 Comparison of body part terminology…………………………………………………………57 3.3.1 Genetic evidence for the Warluwarric language group……………………………………………..58 3.3.1.1 Proto-Warluwarric……………………………………………………………………………58 3.3.1.2 Proto-Wakayic………………………………………………………………………………..59 3.3.1.3 Proto- Thawic………………………………………………………………………………….60 3.3.1.4 Proto- Injilanji/Wakaya……………………………………………………………………….61 3.3.2 Evidence for the genetic connection between Garrwa and Wanyi…………………………………62 3.3.3 Evidence for a degree of social homogeneity in the southern Gulf………………………………..62 3.3.4. Borrowings……………………………………………………………………………………………….64 3.3.4.1 Marra and Yanyuwa………………………………………………………………………….64 3.3.4.2 Marra and Garrwa/Wanyi…………………………………………………………………….64 3.3.4.4 Garrwa/Wanyi and Yanyuwa…………………………………………………………………64 3.3.4.4 Wakayic languages and Garrwa/ Wanyi……………………………………………………..66 3.3.4.5 Yukulta……………………………………………………………………………………….66 3.5 Comparison of consanguineous kinship terminology…………………………………………67 3.4.1 Harmonic generation…………………………………………………………………………………….67 3.4.1.1 Evidence of genetic groupings……………………………………………………………….68 3.4.1.2 Evidence of lower level groupings…………………………………………………………..69 3.4.2 Disharmonic generation………………………………………………………………………………..70 3.4.2.1 Evidence of genetic groupings……………………………………………………………….69 3.5 Comparison of affinal kinship termionology………………………………………………….71 3.5.1 Evidence of social relationships……………………………………………………………………….71 3.5.1.1 Yanyuwa, Marra, Garrwa and Wanyi………………………………………………………..71 3.5.1.2 Wakayic languages…………………………………………………………………………..71 3.5.1.3 Yukulta………………………………………………………………………………………72 vi 3.6 Comparison of subsection and semi-moiety terminology……………………………………72 3.6.1 Semi-moiety system………………………………………………………………………………………72 3.6.2 Subsection system………………………………………………………………………………………..74 3.7 Analysis of data…………………………………………………………………………………75 3.7.1 Analysis of pronouns and body parts……………………………………………………………….…75 3.7.2 Analysis of kinship terms and sociocentric lexicon…………………………………………………76 3.8 Summary of results…………………………………………………………………………….76 CHAPTER 4.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………….80 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….80 4.2 Implications for the prehistory of the southern Gulf of Carpentaria……………………….80 4.2.1 Genetic classifications…………………………………………………………………………………..80 4.2.2 Language group migrations and present day geographical language positions……………...…83 4.2.3 Social groupings………………………………………………………………………………………….83 4.2.4 Intensification of social contact………………………………………………………………………..84 4.3 Implications for Australian prehistory………………………………………………………...85 4.3.1 Pama-Nyungan language expansion and other mid-Holocene changes………………………….85 4.3.2 Correlation with other mid-Holocene changes………………………………………………………85 4.3.3 The spread of the subsection system of social organization……………………………………..86 4.4 Value of linguistic study for knowledge of Australian prehistory…………………………...86 4.5 Directions for further research…………………………………………………………………87 4.6 Review of thesis content…………………………………………………………………………87 4.7 Summary of main conclusions………………………………………………………………….88 Appendix 1: Pronouns ………………………………………………………………………………..90 Appendix 2: Body Part terms ………………………………………………..……………………….92 Appendix 3: Consanguineous kinship terms………………………………………………………...103 Appendix 4: Affinal kinship terms………………………………………………………………….108 Appendix 5: Semi-moiety terms……….……………………………………………………………112 Appendix 6: Subsection terms………………………………………………………………………113 vii REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………..114 viii LIST OF MAPS Map 1.1 The genetic language groups in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria Map 1.2 The Pama-Nyungan/ non Pama-Nyungan division of Australian languages Map 21. Sea- levels in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria 10 500 BP Map 2.2 Sea-levels in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria 8000 BP Map 2.3 Sea-levels in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria 6000 BP Map 2.4 Present sea-levels in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria Map 2.5 Type of social organization in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria Map 3.1 The social groupings in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Comparative list of Indo-Eurpoean lexicon Table 1.2 Linguists who have worked in the southern Gulf languages Table 1.3 Results of analysis by means of lexico-statistics Table 1.4 Examples of genetic relationships and borrowings Table 2.1 Mid-Holocene changes in Australia Table 3.1 Warluwarric pronouns Table 3.2 Case forms of first person singular pronouns in the Gulf languages Table 3.3 Case forms of second person singular pronouns in the Gulf languages Table 3.4 Proto-Warluwarric body part terms Table 3.5 Southern Gulf cognate –nganhtha ‘tongue’ Table 3.6 Proto-Wakayic body part terms Table 3.7 Sound changes present in Yanyuwa Table 3.8 Proto-Thawic vocabulary Table 3.9 Proto Injilanji/ Wakaya vocabulary Table 3.10 Proto-Wakayic kinship terms Table 3.11 The widespread mimi ‘mother’s father’ term x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Family tree of Indo-European languages Figure 1.2 Outside influences on Yanyuwa Figure 2.1 O’Grady et al. (1996) classification of Australian languages Figure 3.1 Laughren’s