University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics Volume 4 Issue 3 Article 2 1997 Was Mir Wisse: A Review of the Literature on the Languages of the Pennsylvania Germans David Bowie Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl Recommended Citation Bowie, David (1997) "Was Mir Wisse: A Review of the Literature on the Languages of the Pennsylvania Germans," University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics: Vol. 4 : Iss. 3 , Article 2. Available at: https://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol4/iss3/2 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol4/iss3/2 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Was Mir Wisse: A Review of the Literature on the Languages of the Pennsylvania Germans This working paper is available in University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics: https://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol4/iss3/2 Was Mir Wisse: A Review of the Literature on the Languages of the Pennsylvania Germans1 David Bowie 1. Introduction In North America—and particularly in the United States—minority languages generally die out rather quickly to make way for the surrounding language. Certain pockets of immigrant languages, however, can still be found; one of the best known of these is the language that has become known variously as Pennsylvania Dutch, Pennsylfawnisch, and Pennsylvania German (the preferred term in the scholarly literature, hereafter abbreviated PG), a dialect of German which has been spoken continuously in North America2 since the end of the seventeenth century by a group of people which have come to be known as the Pennsylvania Germans.3 PG is spoken by various groups of people, primarily by Anabaptist “plain people”—that is, the conservative Amish, Mennonite, and Hutterite groups. (While the language was spoken by other groups of German origin as recently as fifty years ago, it is only rarely heard now among those populations.) The area in which the language is spoken covers a roughly diamond-shaped area with corners in southern Ontario, southeastern Pennsylvania, southern Maryland, and at the Indiana-Illinois border, and throughout the area PG is in some degree of contact with North American English. This has given rise to what is generally described as a stable 1 This paper is the initial printed result of an ongoing effort to develop a bibliography of linguistic treatments of Pennsylvania German; the Pennsylvania German in the title means “What we know.” I would be remiss without giving thanks to the many people whose help has led in some way to this paper, among them particularly Gillian Sankoff, Hikyoung Lee, Zsuzsanna Fagyal, and an anonymous reviewer. 2 The other main surviving North American German languages are generally called Mennonite Low German, Texas German, and Wisconsin German, with some disagreement over whether Wisconsin German is actually separate from PG. Mennonite Low, Texas, and Wisconsin German deserve treatment separate from PG, and therefore will not be dealt with in this paper. Reed (1971) has suggested the blanket term “American colonial German” to cover all of these languages, a term which (unfortunately, in my opinion) has not gained widespread acceptance. 3 This is actually a somewhat inexact usage; technically, one must not be a speaker of PG to be called a Pennsylvania German. The correlation is close enough, however, for present purposes, although as will be seen, some of the studies described in this paper do not hold to such a definition. U. Penn Working Papers in Linguistics, Volume 4.3, 1997 2 DAVID BOWIE bilingual situation, with all or nearly all speakers of PG being fluent in North American English; therefore, studies of PG speakers do not have to be limited to PG, but can also look at the English spoken by PG speakers, comparative fluency in the two languages, etc. This paper will attempt to give an overview of the research which has been done on the languages of the Pennsylvania Germans over the past 125 years. To accomplish this end, the paper will look at the evolution of the field of study, starting with the studies of PG made in the late nineteenth century, followed by the dialectological surveys of PG and the Pennsylvania Germans done in the first half of the twentieth century as reflected primarily in articles published in American speech at that time, followed by studies done since the time of the 1968 Tenth Germanic Languages Symposium at the University of Texas at Austin, which focused in great part on the German languages spoken in North America and how to maintain their presence. These divisions will allow a glimpse of the way in which the study of the languages of the Pennsylvania Germans has developed, from a focus on structural description to dialectology to language death and language maintenance; they also allow highlights of the field and its development to be presented, as the numbers of studies which have been published is much larger than the number that could even begin to fit into a paper of this length. 2. The Nineteenth Century The nineteenth century saw the end of the Anabaptist migration to North America (in about 1860), and the first widespread realization that a large group of people in North America were maintaining their German language. The first records we have of this are occasional entries in the travel journals of German-speaking tourists and occasional general-interest books published about PG (Yoder 1971); these are, however, not very important for present purposes, whereas the scholarly literature on PG that began to appear in the last quarter of the nineteenth century is. The two main scholarly works on PG to come out of the nineteenth century are Haldeman’s Pennsylvania Dutch: A dialect of south German with an infusion of English (1872) and Learned’s The Pennsylvania German dialect (1889). These works are now most useful because they offer a snapshot of the condition of PG in the late nineteenth century; they also give no hint that non-Anabaptist PG speakers were in any danger of losing their proficiency in PG. It thus seems that that started to happen sometime in the late nineteenth or early twentieth centuries, as dialectologists were already reporting on that phenomenon in the 1930s. THE LANGUAGES OF THE PENNSYLVANIA GERMANS 3 3. Twentieth-Century Dialectologists PG and the area populated by PG-speaking people have been of great interest to dialectologists. In the first half of the twentieth century this interest focused on two issues, each of which will be dealt with separately—the structure of PG itself, and the English spoken by Pennsylvania Germans as well as non-Pennsylvania Germans living in areas with large numbers of PG speakers. As the question of PG itself received more attention, it will be dealt with first. 3.1. Twentieth-Century Studies of PG The study of PG by dialectologists began to appear in the scholarly press in the 1920s with books and articles by various authors, most notably Lambert (1924), who worked on developing dictionaries of PG. Other PG dictionaries and grammars followed; the field of study, however, flowered particularly brightly in the pages of American speech around the time of the Great Depression and World War II. The first article in American speech on PG (Follin 1929) identified PG as a “southern German” dialect, echoing the conclusion that Haldeman (1872) had reached half a century earlier. A quick response came from Bickel (1930), who noted that Follin (1929) had identified PG as a Palatinate German dialect. Bickel also noted that the use of PG PG of was fading, but it retained a strong hold in certain counties of Pennsylvania;4 this may be a reflection of the shift of the non-Anabaptist Pennsylvania Germans away from speaking PG and toward speaking English in areas where the PG-speaking populations were not concentrated enough to hold out against the encroachment of English. A favorite study of dialectologists studying PG has been the borrowing of English words into PG. Haldeman (1872) and Learned (1889) had both made note of large numbers of English borrowings, but comprehensive dialectological studies of these borrowing were not done until the issue was taken up by such people as Werner (1931), Buffington (1941), Frey (1942), Reed (1942,1948), and Schach (1948,1949,1952,1954); in addition, Schach (1951) looked at semantic borrowing from English into PG. These studies often made it seem that the German of PG was simply being 4 Interestingly, the Pennsylvania counties listed were Lehigh, Berks, and Lebanon Counties; Lancaster County, now thought of as the heart of PG, was not included. A likely reason for this is that the three counties listed in the article held a large number of non-Anabaptist PG-speakers, and many dialectological studies of the time tended to ignore the Anabaptist PG-speakers (see, for example, the opening maps in Reed and Seifert 1954). 4 DAVID BOWIE replaced by English words, but some researchers pointed out that what had happened was only that certain high-frequency words had been borrowed, giving the appearance that PG was being overwhelmed by American English, when in fact most of the words in PG are clearly German in origin. Studies of PG from this time period that focused on its character as a German language were rarer, but still existed; representative of these are the studies by Buffington (1937,1939,1948) and Frey (1941,1943). These sorts of studies were important for various reasons, but two of them are worthy of particular note. In his study of the diphthong oi, Frey (1943) demonstrated that the differences between PG and European German were actually the result of regular historical processes much like, for example, those differentiating northern and southern varieties of European German.