AZERBAIJAN: ISLAM IN A POST-SOVIET REPUBLIC By Anar Valiyev* The collapse of the Soviet Union and the demise of Communist ideas paved the way for an Islamic revival in Azerbaijan. Being one of the most secular Muslim republics of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan is facing a dilemma concerning how to address contemporary religious issues. A suppression of religious activities and organizations could lead to internal opposition and radicalization. In contrast, freedom of religious activities could allow the neighboring state of Iran to export an Islamist revolution and encourage the development of a radical brand of local Islamism. The high percentage of poor people, as well as the presence of over 700,000 refugees in the country, create a dangerous breeding ground for radical organizations to recruit members and sympathizers for future struggles. For centuries, religion was an integral and places of worship were restored; dozens of binding part of public life in Azerbaijan. religious organizations were registered; new Since antiquity, almost all wars, reforms, and religious schools (madrasas) opened; and political processes occurred under the banner many young Azerbaijanis are attending of religion. Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Muslim religious universities in Saudi Islam enriched the history of Azerbaijan and Arabia, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan. have had a huge impact on the formation of Islam permeates Azerbaijani social life. It the identity of the Azerbaijani nation. Today, is now common to encounter young people Azerbaijan is experiencing a religious observing the Muslim traditions or young revival. Ideological disorientation, the search women dressing in accordance to Islamic for national and cultural identity, and the traditions. Religion is also actively used by Karabakh conflict with Armenia are three political leaders as a means of pursuing their major factors which define the place of Islam interests. After the fall of the Communist in modern Azerbaijan. regime, political leaders began to observe About 93.4 percent of Azerbaijan’s Muslim traditions. Heydar Aliyev, then populations are Muslim, 2.5 percent are president of Azerbaijan and a former KGB Russian Orthodox, 2.3 percent are Armenian general, was the first Azerbaijani political Orthodox, and 1.8 percent are classified as leader to visit Mecca in 1994. However, more “other.”1 Due to the outflow of Russians, the than anything else, this simply demonstrates number of adherents to Christianity in how Islam is being manipulated by relatively Azerbaijan is steadily decreasing. secular politicians. Meanwhile, Islam is experiencing a During the seventy years under renaissance. Over the past few years, Communist rule, the people were prevented hundreds of new mosques were built; former from practicing Islamic traditions. However, Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 9, No. 4 (December 2005) 1 Anar Valiyev during the USSR’s perestroika era, below 72,000 Azeri manat (US $15) per Azerbaijanis identified themselves more with capita per month.6 the Islamic than the Turkic world. For The picture is exacerbated by high example, Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah numbers of refugees and internally displaced Khomeini was a popular symbolic alternative persons. The occupation of about 20 percent to the Soviet system. His picture was often of Azerbaijan’s territories by Armenian displayed in people’s homes, despite the fact forces has resulted in the mass movement of that these individuals were unfamiliar with people seeking refuge. By the end of 2002, his ideology and did not sympathize with his there were 783,200 refugees and internally worldview.2 displaced persons in Azerbaijan, accounting Indeed, this apparent religious revival for approximately one-seventh of the remained rather superficial. Polls conducted country’s total population.7 The Iranian in 2000 showed that believers constituted Hizballah and Saudi missionary organizations 63.4 percent of all respondents, though only are very active in refugee camps, attempting 6.7 percent considered themselves “firm to recruit and to establish future terrorist believers.” In contrast, 10.4 percent cells. pronounced themselves agnostic and 7.1 Another potential problem is the division percent as non-be lievers. An additional 8.6 of the population between Shi’a and Sunni percent said they were indifferent. Just 3.8 Muslims. Due to a lack of statistics, at percent of the respondents categorized present it can only be assumed that out of themselves as “firm atheists.” However, more than 7.6 million Azerbaijanis of Muslim when asked about their observance of the background, a majority of between 65 to 75 religious commandments, only 17.7 percent percent are connected to Shi’i traditions; the of the “believers” indicated observance of rest consider themselves Sunni. It is one of the main pillars of Islam: namaz important to note that although for the most (prayer). Thus, 82.3 percent of the part, religious knowledge is very poor, the “believers” do not abide by this injunction.3 inhabitants of the different regions of the Despite its usefulness for the country’s country have preserved aspects of their Shi’a leaders, the revival of Islam in Azerbaijan or Sunni heritage. Until 1992, the division of was nonetheless dangerous for the incumbent Azerbaijanis between Shi’a or Sunni Islam rulers. One factor involved was the material was nominal. It was even possible to be a deprivation of the population, making them member of the Communist Party and be inclined to seek a drastic alternative to the atheist, but to preserve Shi’a or Sunni cultural status quo. According to the UN Human traditions. In Azerbaijan, Islam, whether Development Report, 49.6 percent of the Shi’a or Sunni, was considered a culture population lives below the poverty level.4 rather than a religion.8 Traditionally, Sunni Although the Azerbaijani government Muslims populate the northern and western decreased the poverty level from 61 percent part of Azerbaijan, while other sections, in 1995 to 49.6 percent in 2001, the life of including the capital Baku and its suburbs, almost half of the population remains in are home to Shi’a Muslims. 5 desolate conditions. Seventeen percent of A new element in the picture is the Salafi the total population, or 1.3 million, lived in radical Islamists who are actively seeking to extreme poverty, with monthly consumption establish their influence. They have had some 2 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 9, No. 4 (December 2005) Azerbaijan: Islam in a Post-Soviet Republic success, especially among ethnic minorities When the Safavid Empire was established in such as the Avars and Lezgins of northern the sixteenth century, its founder, Ismail I, Azerbaijan. The anti-Shi’a feelings of many declared Shi’ism the official religion and Sunni Salafi Islamists could raise the expelled Sunni clerics. There were also possibility of clashes between the two Islamic political considerations behind these actions. streams. The Azerbaijani state was the rival of the How Islam will develop in Azerbaijan and Ottoman Empire, where Sunni Islam was the its influences on society and politics is one of official religion. In retrospect, Ismail’s the most important issues the country faces. decision also helped preserve an Azeri identity separate from that of other Turks and HISTORICAL BACKGROUND the Ottomans.11 More than 2,100 years ago, Azerbaijan The Russian conquest of Azerbaijan became the center of Zoroastrianism, whose during the first quarter of nineteenth century founder was, according to legend, born in changed the situation. The Russian South Azerbaijan (today northern Iran). Until authorities were inclined to eliminate Muslim the seventh century, the religion dominated influence from the Caucasus to make this Azerbaijan and played an important role in region Christian, and thus pro-Russian.12 shaping the worldview and traditions of the During the first ten years of Russian rule, Azeri people. The main holiday of Azerbaijan 100,000 Azeris were expelled from Erivan, remains Novruz Bayram, which announces Nakhichevan, Karabakh, and Lori to the the start of spring and now coincides with the neighboring countries and were replaced by Islamic New Year. Zoroastrian traditions can Armenians and Russian colonists. still be found in the country’s legends, However, the vast and long-term nature of fairytales, and music.9 this project led to a change in Russian policy. In the fourth century, Christianity arrived, The new policy aimed to establish Muslim though some churches date back to an even provinces that would be loyal to the Russian earlier time. 10 In the seventh century, a empire and would be governed by Russian Muslim Arab army defeated Persia and officials. In 1823, the position of Shaykh al- conquered South Azerbaijan, which was part Islam was established in Tiflis, and Akhund of the Persian Sasanid Empire at the time. (Minister) Muhammad Ali Huseynzadeh was While Islam treated Christians and Jews with appointed to this position. In 1872, the tolerance, it persecuted Zoroastrians as Russians created a Shi’a and Sunni spiritual pagans to the point that the religion soon department, which made the religious leaders disappeared from Azerbaijan. servants of the government. The creation of After the death of Muhammad, the two spiritual departments, headed by Mufti political struggle in the Arab Califate was for Sunni and Shaykh al-Islam for Shi’a, reflected in Azerbaijan as well, with the pursued the aim of strengthening state control division of Islam into Shi’a and Sunni over mosques and fueling Sunni-Shi’a streams. Iranians, in part due to a sense of differences. By the end of the Czarist Empire, having a separate history and identity from there were 23 Shi’a and 16 Sunni judges in the Arabs, chose to become Shi’a. Most Azerbaijan. 13 Azerbaijanis, feeling closer to the Persians Historically, the proportion of Sunni than to the Arabs, followed the same course.