Intangible Cultural Heritage Safeguarding in the Context of Tourism: A Case Study of Lijiang, China by Junjie Su M.A., B.S. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Deakin University June, 2017 Acknowledgements My life is like a journey. Though it is bittersweet, it is always rewarding. The past five-year duration of my PhD research, I would say, is the most difficult and challenging journey I have ever had. I wouldn‟t have completed this intellectual journey if I hadn‟t been inspired, supported and encouraged by my supervisors: Emeritus Prof. William Logan, Prof. Andrea Witcomb, Dr. Fengqi Qian and Ms Kristal Buckley. I owe great gratitude to them. Special thanks should also be given to researchers at the Cultural Heritage Asia-Pacific Group of Deakin University: Prof. Tim Winter, Dr. Linda Young and Dr. Steven Cooke. In addition, I would specifically thank Dr Kate Hall for her efficient proof-reading. Meanwhile, the fieldwork couldn‟t have been completed without the assistance from the following scholars: Prof. Yang Fuquan, Prof. He Ming, Prof. Song Junhua, Prof. Kang Baocheng, He Limin, He Pinzheng, Yang Guoqing, Yang Zenglie, Yang Linjun, Mu Chen, Li Dejing, and Yang Guoqin. And I would thank the officials who helped me during the fieldwork in Yunnan: Cai Yonghui, Dong Yanling, Yin Jiayu, Xu Qing, Liu Xiaoyan, Li Zhidian, Li Guang, Ding Wenjie and Zhang Xuelin. I also would like to thank many local people who helped me with their kindness, generosity and traditional knowledge, especially He Shurong, He Wensong, Xuan Ke, He Linyi, Wang Liwei, Che Fumin, He Jinping, He Xianglong, Hedama, He Guojun, He Yaowei and others. Doing a PhD is not an easy journey. I thank my colleagues and friends in Australia who accompanied me through this journey: Lin Cen, Guo Yingying, Ren Quan, Karen Schamberger, Paulette Wallace, Luke James, Laura Kraak, Diane Siebrandt, Melathi Saldin and Diyana Sulaiman. Good luck for you. For those who have been with me during my time in Kunming, Lijiang and other places, I thank you all for making my days memorable. Last but not the least, I express my thanks from the bottom of my heart to my parents in Kunming, China, for their continuous love, care and encouragement for me to travel and explore the unknown world. I wish them health and happiness so that we can travel together one day. Thank myself for not giving up. Junjie, on the Chinese New Year‟s Eve, 27 Jan., 2017 Abstract A study on Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) in the context of tourism is needed not only to resolve practical problems in heritage management, but also to further the development of theory in the field of heritage studies and heritage tourism. While studies on ICH have been burgeoning in recent years, little research has been done in relation to the safeguarding of ICH in the context of tourism. This is particularly so with regard to the applicability of key theoretical concepts in heritage studies, namely authenticity and integrity. My thesis is that these need to be rethought and reconceptualised in relation to ICH safeguarding. I will advance my arguments through a case study of ICH practices and their management in Lijiang, located in Yunnan Province, China. Here the indigenous ICH is rich and heritage tourism development is mature. Most commentators interpret this place as an example par excellence of the tension between “authentic protection of ICH” and “use of ICH in commodification”. I argue, however, that this tension is in itself a reflection of two points of difference within the Chinese ICH system. The first is between the Chinese official ICH discourse and UNESCO ICH discourse. The second is between these “official discourses” and the “cultural practice” engaged by the ICH practitioners on the ground in Lijiang. I use these findings to argue that the understanding of the local ICH practitioners is central to the resolution of the tension between the protection and the use of ICH. Methodologically, the research draws on the Critical Heritage Studies approach and the emic perspective in experimental ethnography. I use these to propose an innovative inheritors-based emic perspective to reveal, analyse and privilege the understandings of the local ICH practitioners of four types of ICH in Lijiang, namely Dongba culture, traditional music, handicrafts and traditional food making skills, which I then contrast with the perspectives of the officials (at national, provincial, municipal and county levels) and the experts (both non-local and local experts). Given the way in which the officials and experts have interpreted the relationship between authenticity and commodification as one of tension between the two, I deliberately studied two forms of ICH: the less-commodified practice in the community and the more-commodified practice in the tourism market. Key Words: Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH), Authenticity, Integrity, Continuity, Critical Heritage Studies, Inheritors-based emic perspective, Authorised Heritage Discourse (AHD), Tourism, Commodification, China, UNESCO, Lijiang List of Abbreviations (In the order of appearance) UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation ICH: Intangible Cultural Heritage ICHC: Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage AHD: Authorised Heritage Discourse LICH: Law on Intangible Cultural Heritage of the People’s Republic of China ICOMOS: The International Council on Monuments and Sites OG: The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention The SACH: The State Administration of Cultural Heritage of China The LPMB: The World Heritage Old Town of Lijiang Protection and Management Bureau GDP: Gross Domestic Product List of Figures: Figure 2.1 The ICH Making Circle p64 Figure 4.1 ICH Administrative System in China p92 Figure 5.1 Location of Yunnan Province (left) and Lijiang Municipality (right) p114 Figure 5.2 Statistics of Tourism Visits and Revenue in Lijiang (1990-2010) p138 Figure 10.1 The Chinese ICH Administrative System Under the Influences of the AHD and the Local Cultural Practice p294 List of Tables Table 6.1 Background of the Dongbas Interviewed in Yushuizhai p148 Table 6.2 Background of the Dongbas Interviewed in Baidi Village p154 Table 6.3 Background of the Music Players Interviewed in Lijiang p163 Table 7.1 Background of the Interviewed Non-local Scholars p191 Table 7.2 Background of the Interviewed Local Scholars p194 Table 7.3 Synchronic Values Perceived by the Interviewed Practitioners p198 Table 7.4 Naxi People‟s Attitude towards the Ethnic Values p204 Table 7.5 Chinese Words in Relation to Authenticity p208 Table 7.6 Aspects of Authenticity Indicated by the Interviewed Practitioners p209 Table 8.1 Surveyed Local People‟s Attitude towards the Change of ICH p235 Table 8.2 The Changed Aspects of the Components Indicated by the Interviewed Practitioners p236 Table 8.3 Comparison and Contrast of Diverse Interpretations of the Case in the Two Situations by the Interviewed Practitioners p243 Table 9.1 Comparison of the Values Perceived by the Interviewed Dongbas between the Community and the Tourism Situations p263 Table 9.2 Surveyed Dongbas‟ Attitudes towards Being Willing to Practice Their ICH p266 Table 9.3 Comparison of the Values Perceived by the Interviewed Players between the Community and the Tourism Situations p270 Table 9.4 Surveyed Music Players‟ Attitudes towards Being Willing to Practice Their ICH p272 Table 9.5 Comparison of the Values Perceived by the Interviewed Craftsmen between the Community and the Tourism Situations p275 Table 9.6 Surveyed Craftsmen‟s Attitudes towards the Influence of Tourism on Their ICH p277 Table 9.7 Surveyed Craftsmen‟s Attitudes towards Being Willing to Practice Their ICH p278 Table 9.8 Comparison of the Values Perceived by the Interviewed Cooks between the Community and the Tourism Situations p280 Table 9.9 Surveyed Food Inheritors‟ Attitudes towards Being Willing to Practice Their ICH p282 List of Photos: Photo 1.1 Local Naxi Women and Tourists are Dancing in the Old Town of Lijiang p3 Photo 5.1 The Streetscape of Dayan Town in Lijiang p118 Photo 6.1 Dongbas at the Annual Dongba Fahui in the Heheyuan, Yushuizhai p146 Photo 6.2 Dongba He Guojun Performing in the Heheyuan, Yushuizhai p149 Photo 6.3 Dongba He Yaowei Performing at the Impression of Naxi p151 Photo 6.4 Dongba Apprentices are Attending Class in the Baidi School p154 Photo 6.5 He‟s Family Troupe Performing Baishaxiyue Music in Guanyinxia p157 Photo 6.6 The Dayan Naxi Ancient Music Association Performance p160 Photo 6.7 The Wooden Wishing Bell Made by Che Fuming p166 Photo 6.8 Coppersmith He Shanjun in His Workshop in Baisha Village p168 Photo 6.9 Zhang Xiangfang is Making Lijiang Baba in Her Shop in Dayan Town of Lijiang p174 Content Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Background ............................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Issues in Lijiang ................................................................................................. 1 1.1.2 Concepts of ICH in China .................................................................................. 7 1.1.3 Comparison of the Concepts of ICH between UNESCO and China ............... 11 1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 14 1.3 Structure of the Thesis