CONCEALED GAZES The closed balconies of Lima and how they affected women's relationship to the public space and public sphere Beatriz Pero Giannini Piet Zwart Institute Introduction In the “City of Kings” of Lima, during the colonial and the first republic periods (1620-1842), upper-class women Historically, city space has been gendered in a way that the had a unique and complex relationship to the public realm public realm is perceived as unequivocally male1. This is a through the second period balconies, also known as closed realm where women have been either excluded or allowed balconies4. The immense distance between the new world restricted access to, mainly through spatial elements that and the old continent offered social, spatial and economic regulate and control their access to and gaze of the public mobility to the emerging society, which created the need space, while also controlling and regulating who can look for women’s role and boundaries to be re-defined5. Further- at or have access to them2. Examples of these are closed or more, life in Lima has often been described as a continuous curtained vehicles, special sections in theaters and cinemas masquerade, where upper-class women embodied the dual- closed off by screens, temporarily curtained sections of the ism of their context, since they were perceived to simultane- street from a vehicle to a building, or closed balconies in ously encompass contrasting attributes, for example being domestic and religious contexts 3. the embodiment of “marianism” and “don juanism”6. Thus, women’s use of the closed balconies resulted in an extension of this dualism into their relationship to the public space and the public sphere. 4 Smith and Bley, 2013; ‘Sucedió en el Perú “Balcones de Lima”’, 2016; Fuentes, 2017 1 Ruddick, 1996 5 Garcilaso de la Vega, 1617; Denegri Alvarez Calderon, 2 Ruddick, 1996; Mazumdar and Mazumdar, 2001 1996, pp. 54–55 3 Papanek, 1973; Yeoh and Huang, 1998; Mazumdar and 6 Tristan, 1839, pp. 479–506; Martin, 1983, pp. 01–08; Mazumdar, 2001; Smith and Bley, 2013 Lambright and Guerrero, 2006, pp. 49–66 To understand how the closed balcony affected upper-class women’s relationship to the public realm, the reasons why it became such an inherent architectonic element of the city and how it affected the entire upper-class’s relationship to the exterior must be comprehended. The closed balco- ny originated in the architecture of the Indus Valley and Sumeria, in modern-day [Pakistan and Irak], which was assimilated by Seljuq Turks in the eleventh century. From there, the Turks spread its use throughout the Muslim ter- Context and necessity ritories in the beginning of the twelfth century, and then through the Muslims’ conquest of Hispania it reached the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the same century. Finally, in the sixteenth century, the historic Hispano-Arabic use of the closed balcony arrived to America with the Spaniards and Moors that migrated from Andalusia and Extremadu- ra, the first searching for economic opportunities and the later escaping from the religious persecution of the Spanish monarchy and the Catholic Church7. 7 Hurtado Valdez, 2005; Fernandez Muñoz, 2007, pp. 12–27; ‘Sucedió en el Perú “Balcones de Lima”’, 2016 The construction ofcasonas o palacios (mansions) was a com- plex endeavor8. Since there was neither stone nor wood easily available because Lima is located in an arid coastal strip, the casonas had to be constructed with the prehispan- ic materials and techniques of adobe (mudbrick) and quincha (reed or cane framework) used by the lower classes9. Hence, camouflaging the rustic materials and adorning the façade with ornate wooden closed balconies were how the elite conveyed their wealth, status and power, and clearly stated the power structure of the new social order (figure 01). Only they could afford to build a second floor, to import white and dark oak from Guayaquil and cedar from Nicaragua, Ecuador and Chile for the main doors and balconies, to buy glass for the windows panes, to import Sevillan mosaics and velvet upholstery for the interior of the balconies, and to afford the fees of the skilled Moorish and Spanish wood craftsmen10. 8 Patruco Núñez, 2017 9 Fiol Cabrejos, 1982, pp. 39–45; Walker, 2003 Figure 01. Photographs of the Palacio de Torre Tagle, commisioned in 1715 by 10 Fiol Cabrejos, 1982, pp. 39–46; Walker, 2003; Hurtado Don Jose Bernardo de Tagle y Bracho, 1st Marqués of Torre Tagle. Valdez, 2005; Fernandez Muñoz, 2007, pp. 29–37; The mansion was designed in the spanish barroque style with barro- Fuentes, 2017 que-mudejar balconies Furthermore, the balconies enabled the upper-class to phys- ically and figuratively rise above the masses in the streets, When viceroy Manso de Velasco approved the reforms pro- and allowed them to communicate with the public space posed by Luis Godin in 1746, which among other ordinanc- while maintaining their domestic life private as was ex- es banned the construction of two story houses and bal- pected of gente decente (noble people)11. Additionally, it was conies, the elite vehemently refused to comply with them, a matter of safety to have closed balconies that allowed a because outlawing the balconies was an attempt to limit clear view and better control of the street, due to the high their autonomy, space and power14. By the end of the sev- tensions between social classes, and the constant threat of enteenth century, Lima was already known as “the city of upheaval and political strife12. Moreover, the balconies were streets in the air” (anthropologist Antonio de la Calancha) important for the architecture of the casonas: they served to (figure 02)15. Thus, the balconies became deeply ingrained in illuminate and ventilate the rooms of the first floor, and im- Lima’s idiosyncrasy, particularly in the cultural practice of proved their seismic behavior during the earthquakes that the upper-class16. constantly shook the city as was proven during the earth- quakes of 1655, 1687 and 174613. 11 Walker, 2003; Palma Soriano, 2011; ‘Sucedió en el Perú “Balcones de Lima”’, 2016 12 Walker, 2003; Hurtado Valdez, 2005; Fernandez Muñoz, 2007, pp. 38–39 14 Walker, 2003 13 Fernandez Muñoz, 2007, pp. 38–50; Coch Roura and 15 Fiol Cabrejos, 1982, p. 64 Aguero León, 2009; Scaletti Cárdenas, 2017 Fuentes, 16 Fiol Cabrejos, 1982, pp. 24–27; Fernandez Muñoz, 2007, 2017 pp. 40–50; Fuentes, 2017 Spatial definition and struggle Figure 02. Photograph of “La Calle de los Judios, Lima” in 1918 As one of the main elements of the façade of the casona, the balcony, along with the portada (main entrance) and the ven- tana volada (window), represented the identity and status of 17 Decorative row of turned wooden its owner to the city , like the case of the façade of the Pala- balusters, it wasn’t accesible cio Torre Tagle commissioned by Don José Bernardo de Tagle Remate - top wooden cornice y Bracho, 1st Marquis of Torre Tagle when he rose to the Sobreluz - row of turned wooden post of treasurer of the Spanish fleet18. Architectonically, its balusters balaustres design focused on creating horizontality and unity through Celosia/Ventana - rectangular wooden lattice window, sometimes the harmonious composition of five oak or cedar structur- modified in the 20th century into stained glass windows that close al elements, which are from bottom to top, the apoyo com- downward celosias prised by canes (wooden beams) anchored to the adobe façade Antepecho - row of wooden small balusters on top wall, the antepecho which comprehends the bottom cornice Antepecho - wooden panels, carved with deep geometric designs or and wooden panels with a row of small balusters on top, the plain, some had holes for children to see through ventana/celosia formed by the swing wooden celosias (lattice Antepecho - bottom wooden work) and later by the swing glass plane windows, the so- cornice breluz comprised by the top row of balusters, and the remate, antepecho which is the top cornice, all of which are divided into three Canes - carved or plain wooden beams overlapping strata: antepecho, celosias and balaustres (figure 03)19. Since these elements remain the same through the centuries, balconies are differentiated by their dimensions, color and ornamentation20. 17 Fiol Cabrejos, 1982, pp. 50–57; Fuentes, 2017 18 ‘Sucedió en el Perú “Balcones de Lima”’, 2016 19 San Cristóbal Sebastian, 2003, pp. 634–635; Fernandez Figure 03. Muñoz, 2007, pp. 28–33 The closed balcony’s elements explained in an diagram of a balcony of 20 Fiol Cabrejos, 1982, pp. 58–66; Fuentes, 2017 the Palacio Torre Tagle PROTO BAROQUE / EARLY RENAISSANCE BARROQUE TRANSITION / NEOCLASSICAL PERIODS 1620 ‐ 1670 1671 ‐ 1746 1747 ‐ 1850 Rectangular floor plan with straight, six‐sided Rectangular floor plan with straight, octagonal Plan shape Rectangular floor plan or L shaped floor plan. or octagonal corners, or L shaped floor plan. or rounded corners. Across the facade, or placed symmetrically or Location on Center of the facade over the entrace, or on Across the facade, or placed symmetrically or asymetrically or the sides of the entrance, or the facade the corner. asymetrically on the sides of the entrance. on the corner. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS h = 3.20m ‐ 4.00m h = 3.20m ‐ 4.00m h = 3.20m ‐ 4.60m Dimensions l = 3.00m ‐ 8.00m l = 3.00m ‐ 8.00m l = 3.80m ‐ 20.00m w = 0.80m ‐ 1.70m w = 0.80m ‐ 1.70m w = 0.80m ‐ 1.70m Painted olive green or barnished in a natural Painted olive green or barnished in a natural Color Painted in dark colors, mainly dark brown. clear tone. clear tone. Number of 01 ‐ 02 balconies 01 ‐ 02 balconies 01 ‐ 05 balconies balconies The balcony rested on canes (wooden The balcony rested on canes (wooden The balcony rested on exposed canes supporting beams), which were fixed to the supporting beams), which were fixed to the Apoyo (wooden supporting beams), which were fixed adobe wall of the facade.