VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND DIPLOMACY DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Bernaras Ivanovas • Algimantas Prazauskas Ethnos and Politics DIDACTICAL GUIDELINES Kaunas, 2013 Reviewed by. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Saulius Pivoras Approved by the Department of Political Science of the Faculty of Political Science and Diplomacy at Vytautas Magnus University on 12 December 2012 (Protocol No. 7a) Recommended for printing by the Council of the Faculty of Political Science and Diplomacy of Vytautas Magnus University on 7 January 2013 (Protocol No. 54) Translated and edited by UAB “Lingvobalt” Publication of the didactical guidelines is supported by the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Project title: “Renewal and Internationalization of Bachelor Degree Programmes in History, Ethnology, Philosophy and Political Science” (project No.: VP1-2.2-ŠMM-07-K-02-048) © Bernaras Ivanovas, 2013 © Algimantas Prazauskas, 2013 ISBN 978-9955-21-370-3 © Vytautas Magnus University, 2013 Table of Contents 1. The Concept of Ethnic Politics. Ethnos, Ethnic Identity and its Structure . 7 2. Nation . 17 3. Nationalism . 28 4. Multi-ethnic society: structure, dynamics and the issue of integration . 42 5. Ethnic conflicts . 51 6. National integration in multi-ethnic communities . 72 7. National movements and their types . 85 8. Political regime and stability of the multi-ethnic society 106 9. Federalism . 115 10. Influence of ethno-political factors on international rela- tions (Palestine and Israel) . 142 Literature . 148 The topics of ethnic politics have retained their relevance for already thirty years. Despite being a relatively new field of political science, ethnic politics have become firmly entrenched in this area. Solid foun- dation for this was laid by the world’s prominent political scientists K. Deutsch, R. Brubaker and others. New challenges continuously bring forth the importance of ethnic politics; therefore, the study process has to be continuously updated and modified in order to reflect, as far as possible, the status of relevant issues in the context of ethnic politics. Nationalism gaining new forms, ethnic conflicts and political processes in multi-ethnic countries are the constant focus of researchers’ atten- tion. New theoretical approaches emerge, new concepts are introduced or the older ones, such as “ethnosymbolism”, are given new meanings. It is crucial to follow and analyse these processes; therefore, inclusion and introduction of new materials and views on a variety of issues of ethnic politics is of paramount importance. In this regard, the present collection of methodological articles attempts to make its humble con- tribution by introducing the students of the Ethnos and Politics course to the most important topics and questions of ethnic politics that also require individual work. The latter is very important; therefore, every article will present the essential questions, terms and concepts to be analysed and understood by the student. This would be the central task of the publication, i. e. to encourage the readers to work indepen- dently, motivate them to engage in a further quest for knowledge and acquire an understanding of the way ethnic politics is related to the other topics and issues of political science. If we succeed in reaching this goal together, then this study of ethnic politics will have accom- plished its core mission. 5 1. The Concept of Ethnic Politics. Ethnos, Ethnic Identity and its Structure Key concepts: Nationalism; ethnicity; national identity; national state. After reading the article, the student: a. will understand the characteristics of ethnic nationalism and the diversity of the actual concepts of nationalism; b. will be able to evaluate the importance of ethnicity in politics; c. will understand the structure of national identity and the con- tents of its parts. Relevance of the issue: disintegration of the USSR, Yugoslavia, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, secession of Eritrea, East Timor, de facto secession of Northern Cyprus, national movements in other countries, separatism attempts, opposing tendencies of ethnic particu- larism and globalisation. Stability of the system, and often the type of regime and vitality of the state depends on the nature of ethnic rela- tions (cf. Robert Dahl) that also inluence the international system. A. Level of international interaction What makes up the contemporary world? States (192 members of the United Nations) or nations? Social, gender, religious, national groups, citizens of specific states, classes, races, information societies? Differ- ent approaches are possible: an orthodox muslim is convinced that all of humanity is divided into muslims and non-muslims, feminists, in the first place, see gender differences, marxists see class divisions (Healey, Joseph F. Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Class. Pine Forge Press. 2010, p 17). But the most obvious division is division into states: 1) they occupy all of the land; 2) except for relatively few apatrids, almost all of the world’s population are citizens of some country; 3) states are the most important international players. However, an important role on the international arena, and espe- cially in the community paradigm, is played by nations. The majority 7 Ethnos and Politics of the world’s population are members of some nation. The Radio of Armenia: the Soviet Union is inhabited by three nations: Armenians, Russians and non-Russians. It is difficult to determine the number of nations and ethnic groups in the world, but there are a few thou- sands of them at any rate. A more exact calculation is, perhaps, only possible by equating state and nation. This view is held by most poli- ticians and even liberal thinkers. Both revolutionaries and liberals are certain that with the increasing economic integration, growing social mobility within the states and closer contact between different ethnic groups, a civic community with a common language and cul- ture will inevitably be formed within the limits of national borders. This was also inspired by the USA’s example ofmelting pot. There was almost no doubt that a Soviet, Yugoslavian, Indian, Indonesian, etc., nation was taking shape. 1) State number dynamics. Since the second half of the 19th cen- tury, another trend had also been developing: regaining of indepen- dence by Greece (1831), separation of Belgium (1831), Romania, Serbia and Montenegro (1878), Norway (1905), Bulgaria (1908), Albania (1913), emergence of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, the Baltic countries in the wake of the World War II and of Ireland in 1922. After the World War II, minority integration and assimilation tendencies prevailed in the European states for a time; however, the sixties already saw the so-called ethnic paradox – a boost in minor- ity (Basque, Flemish, Corsican, Catalan) nationalism. A particularly powerful wave of ethnic nationalism hit with the beginning of politi- cal liberalisation after the Cold War. Conclusion: one of the most significant factors that shaped the current map of Europe are national movements. In Asian and Afri- can countries, the matters are a bit more complicated. 2) Relationships between nations lead to many international conflicts. The issue of borders and territorial disputes (e. g., “Lietuvio kalen- dorius” (Lithuanian Calendar) and the claims to the Kaliningrad en- clave, the attitudes of Belarusian nationalists towards Vilnius). This is irredentism and separatism. The latter are related to the fact that in many cases, ethnic and international borders do not match, or that certain groups believe that they were illegally annexed to a multi- ethnic state, or to both. 8 The Concept of Ethnic Politics Defending the interests of “compatriots”: this is related to diaspo- ras living outside the borders of their historic homeland. The defence policy is rather selective: it does not apply to all countries where fel- low-countrymen live. Support to separatists as a means of fulfilment of national inter- ests. Military support. B. State level Minority demands: cultural autonomy, territorial autonomy, secession. The issue of integration. Homogeneity or pluralism. Normative culture and language. The issue of identity and the need for loyalty. Political culture. Theoretical questions. A large part of scientific literature is about specific conflicts: Ethnic politics conflictology Research References to tribes can already be found in the oldest texts (Herodo- tus, Xenophon, Caesar, Tacitus, Strabo), the Old Testament contains descriptions of their customs and way of life. Relations between in- dividual groups is one of the most important ancient and medieval history lines. Therefore, history is the first science to explore inter- ethnic issues. Later: ethnology (cultural anthropology, sociology (as a narrower field, sociology of prejudice (Healey, Joseph F. Race, Eth- nicity, Gender, and Class. Pine Forge Press. 2010, p. 147)), psychology, political and legal science). (Parenti M. Ethnic Politics and Persistence of Ethnic Identifi- cation. – APScReview, 1967, vol. 61, No. 3, p. 717–726). J.Rothschild (1981) introduced the term “ethnopolitics”. Research object: ethnos as an object and subject of politics, politi- cal relations between ethnic groups (i. e. purely political sphere and overlapping fields). Relativity: not axioms but inherent characteristics and consistent patterns. 9 Ethnos and Politics Central concept: ethnos. Derived from the Greek word ethnos – “the people”.