Volume 1 From Servants to Staff: The Making of a Modern Estate Chatsworth 1908-1950 By: Fiona Clapperton A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Arts & Humanities School of English & Department of History This Work Was Supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (grant number AH/M007316/1) February 2019 2 Abstract Taking as its subject the estate of Chatsworth, in rural Derbyshire, this thesis addresses the question of how the history of the country estate can be understood, not from the perspective of a single social group, but in relation to the whole community who lived, worked and interacted within its boundaries. Structurally, the thesis is comprised of four thematically organised chapters. Each focuses upon a different subset of the estate community and draws upon different kinds of archival material. Each chapter also adopts a distinct methodological approach in response to the source material under scrutiny. In particular, the thesis pays attention to analytical tools developed within the field of historical pragmatics. I argue that this innovative, multi-methodological approach enables a holistic understanding of archival sources to emerge. The thesis finds that, while demographic mapping provides one level of insight, the information contained within letters and memoirs can be crucial for understanding the social norms and interpersonal relationships which made up the framework underpinning the estate community. In particular, it draws upon a variety of documents from the records of Chatsworth’s senior employees, who occupied an important mediatory role within the estate hierarchy. The records of these servants provide a unique insight into how estates such as Chatsworth functioned as social organisms. They offer access to the experiences of the lower-ranking individuals inhabiting the estate, which are unlikely to have been recorded elsewhere, whilst also providing a new vantage point from which to observe the social and professional obligations placed upon the estate’s upper-class landowners. 3 Acknowledgements I would not have been able to write this thesis without the generous assistance of several people. Firstly, I would like to thank my two supervisors, Professor Jane Hodson and Dr. Esme Cleall. Your help, guidance, and words of encouragement have made me a better scholar, and I am extremely grateful. Secondly, thanks go to my collaborative partner, Chatsworth. In particular, I am very grateful to the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire for allowing me access to the Devonshire Collection archives. Thanks must also go to the archival team: Fran Baker, Aiden Haley and James Towe, who helped me to navigate the Collection and who supervised and supported all of my endeavours at Chatsworth. I am also very grateful for the guidance and assistance of the entire Collections Team, including Kate, Alice, Diane, Charles, Dorothy, Nya, Ian, and Kerry, as well as the Education, Marketing, and Visitor Experience Departments. I would like to thank my two ‘From Servants to Staff’ project colleagues: Lauren Butler and Hannah Wallace. They have been my companions and friends. They have not only provided support and advice, but they have also made this research project an extremely fulfilling, fun, and positive experience. I am very glad I got to share this journey with you. I would also like to thank the White Rose College of Arts and Humanities (WRoCAH), for their financial support, their guidance, and for giving me the opportunity to participate in stimulating interdisciplinary and inter-university dialogues. 4 There are many I would like to thank at the University of Sheffield from across the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, but I am especially grateful to Amy Ryall, who has been kind and extremely generous with her time. Finally, I wish to thank my family and friends for their support. Thanks go to my mother and father, Nicola and Graham Clapperton, to my Grandma, Trudi Clapperton, and to my brother and sister-in-law, James and Amy Clapperton. You have helped me immeasurably by believing in me, by encouraging me, and by acting as extra pairs of eyes and ears when needed. Thanks also go to the Jennings family who have been so kind and thoughtful. Finally, very special thanks go to Clio and Ben who have supported me in countless ways. Clio, I want to thank you for keeping me company and for forcing me to take breaks away from my work, so that I could come back to it with fresh eyes. Ben, I am grateful to you for listening to my arguments, for encouraging me throughout, for commiserating with me when I was struggling, and for sharing in my success. For this and much more, I thank you with love. 5 Contents 1. Introduction 1.1 Introduction to the Thesis Volume 1. 11 1.2 The Economic, Social, and Politic Context for the Volume 1. 14 Thesis: Assessing Debates on Change and Continuity 1.3 Making Sense of the Country Estate Community: Volume 1. 21 Understandings of Class, Power, and Social Status 1.4 Literature Review: The History of Country Houses and Volume 1. 30 their Estates 1.5 Literature Review: Labour History, Feminism and Volume 1. 36 Studies of Domestic Servants 1.6 Bridging the Gap: Investing Domestic Employment Volume 1. 49 within a Country Estate 1.7 Sources, Methodologies and Thesis Outline Volume 1. 52 2. Investigating the Chatsworth Estate Community: A Demographic Study 2.1 Introduction to the Study Volume 1. 65 2.2 Snapshot Overview of the Chatsworth Estate Volume 1. 76 Community 1908-1913 2.3 Snapshot of the Gardens Department 1912-1938 Volume 1. 95 2.4 Snapshot of the Building Department 1912-1922 and Volume 1. 105 1929-1949 2.5 Snapshot of the Indoor Female Servants 1925-1940 Volume 1. 114 2.6 Conclusion Volume 1. 131 3. ‘A Special Sort of Person’: An Examination into the Concept of the ‘(Un)Ideal’ Domestic Servant 3.1 Introduction Volume 1. 136 3.2 Methodological Approach Volume 1. 146 3.3 Semantic Category 1: Status and Background Volume 1. 154 3.4 Semantic Category 2: Health and Wellbeing Volume 1. 166 3.5 Semantic Category 3: Behavioural Traits and Volume 1. 180 Personality 3.6 Semantic Category 4: Skill-Set and Experience Volume 1. 193 6 3.7 Conclusion: Who Was the ‘(Un)Ideal Servant’? Volume 1. 208 4. Duty, Dependence and Denarii: An Examination into Philanthropic Gifts & Payments to Servants by Members of the Cavendish Family 1908-1950 4.1 An Introduction to Philanthropy at Chatsworth 1908- Volume 1. 219 1950 4.2 An Analysis of Philanthropic Bequests which were Volume 1. 232 Intended as Demonstrations of Gratitude for Services Rendered 4.3 Specific Scenarios which Motivated Philanthropic Volume 1. 243 Payments 4.4 An Examination of Philanthropic Payments to Those Volume 1. 253 Employees Suffering from Ill Health or Financial Difficulties 4.5 Conclusion Volume 1. 264 5. To ‘Intrude Without Ever Seeming to Intrude’: Investigating the Role of the Senior Servant 5.1 Introduction to the Study Volume 1. 267 5.2 Methodological Approach Volume 1. 276 5.3 Case Study 1: The Role of the Land Agent Volume 1. 280 5.4 Conclusion to Case Study 1 Volume 1. 306 5.5 Introduction to Case Study 2: The Role of the Private Volume 1. 309 Secretary 5.6 Elsie Saunders’ Role as Professional Employee of the Volume 1. 316 Duchess of Devonshire 5.7 Saunders’ role as the Duchess of Devonshire’s personal Volume 1. 324 confidant and sounding-board 5.8 Saunders’ Role as the Duchess of Devonshire’s Close Volume 1. 336 Friend and Correspondent 5.9 Saunders’ Role as a Gatekeeper for Good Taste within Volume 1. 340 the Community 5.10 Conclusion to Case Study 2 Volume 1. 343 5.11 The History of Chatsworth ‘From the Middle’: Some Volume 1. 345 Overall Conclusions 7 6. Thesis Conclusion Volume 1. 348 7. Appendix Volume 2. 3 8. Bibliography Volume 2. 35 List of Charts Chart 2.1: Number of Employees Working Within the Volume 1. 97 Gardens Department in the Period 1912-1938 by Year Chart 2.2: The Increase to an Employee’s Wages Volume 1. 103 According to Length of Service Chart 2.3: Number of Employees Working Within the Volume 1. 106 Building Department in the Period 1912-1922 by Year Chart 2.4: Number of Employees Working Within the Volume 1. 107 Building Department in the Period 1929-1949 by Year Chart 2.5: Percentage of Building Department Employees Volume 1. 110 holding Permanent, Temporary, and Contractor Positions Chart 2.6: The Increase to an Employee’s Wages Volume 1. 112 According to Length of Service Chart 2.7: Number of Female Indoor Employees Working Volume 1. 116 at Chatsworth in the Period 1908-1911 by Year Chart 2.8: Number of Female Indoor Employees Working Volume 1. 123 at Chatsworth in the Period 1925-1940 by Year Chart 2.9: Number of Female Indoor Employees Working Volume 1. 125 at Chatsworth September 1939- December 1939 by Month Chart 2.10: Mean Increase in an Employee’s Rate of Pay Volume 1. 129 according to Length of Service List of Figures Figure 3.1: Schema for the conceptualisation of a servant’s Volume 1. 154 status and background Figure 3.2: Schema for the conceptualisation of a servant’s Volume 1. 167 physical characteristics 8 Figure 3.3: Schema for the conceptualisation of a servant’s Volume 1. 181 behavioural traits and personality Figure 3.4: Schema for the conceptualisation of a servant’s Volume 1. 195 physical characteristics Figure 3.5: Schema for the conceptualisation of the Volume 1.