Green Cars = Green Conflicts? Governance, Grievances and Conflict Dimensions of the Bolivian State Lithium Program Janine Romero Valenzuela Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades einer Doktorin der Sozialwissenschaft (Dr. rer. pol.) der Universität Erfurt, Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät University of Erfurt Willy Brandt School of Public Policy 2018 Erstgutachterin: Junior Prof. Dr. Solveig Richter Willy Brandt School of Public Policy, Universität Erfurt Zweitgutachter: PD Dr. phil. habil. Jonas Wolff Leiter des Programmbereichs “Innerstaatliche Konflikte“, Hessische Stiftung für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung Datum der Disputation: 07.06.2018 urn: nbn:de:gbv:547-201800484 Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde durch ein Promotionsstipendium der Graduiertenförderung der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung e.V. gefördert. Table of Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... v List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................. vii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. xi List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. xii 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Global-Local Perspectives on Lithium ............................................................................. 1 1.2 Understanding the Resource-Conflict Link ..................................................................... 2 1.3 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................. 6 1.4 A Case Study on Lithium in Bolivia .................................................................................. 9 1.5 Scientific and Political Contributions .............................................................................. 13 1.6 Outline of the PhD Thesis and General Remarks ........................................................ 15 2 Theoretical Concepts and Analytical Design ................................................................. 18 2.1 Introduction to the Social Science Debate on Natural Resources .............................. 19 2.2 Social Conflict ..................................................................................................................... 21 2.3 The Resource-Conflict Nexus in Different Theoretical Perspectives ........................ 24 2.3.1 Resource Curse Debate ..................................................................................................... 24 2.3.2 Resource Grievances in Political Ecology and Neo-Extractivism .............................. 31 2.3.3 Understanding the Meaning of Grievances in Resource Conflicts ............................. 37 2.4 Governance Research ........................................................................................................ 42 2.4.1 Introduction to the Research on Resource Governance .............................................. 42 2.4.2 Grievance Dimensions of Resource Governance ......................................................... 45 2.5 Summary of the Analytical Model ................................................................................... 56 3 Methodological Approach and Research Strategy ......................................................... 60 3.1 Qualitative Case Study Approach .................................................................................... 60 3.2 Methods of Data Collection ............................................................................................. 63 3.2.1 Primary Documents and Secondary Literature .............................................................. 65 3.2.2 Semi-Structured Interviews ............................................................................................... 66 3.3 Methods of Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 74 i 4 Resource Governance in Bolivia under Evo Morales (2006–2016) ........................... 79 4.1 Introduction to the Case Study Bolivia ........................................................................... 79 4.2 The Bolivian Mining Sector from a Historic Perspective ............................................ 86 4.3 The Organizational Structure of the Mining Sector ...................................................... 96 4.4 Mining Legislation ............................................................................................................ 102 4.5 Conflicts in the Bolivian Mining Sector ........................................................................ 109 4.5.1 Economic Mining Conflicts ........................................................................................... 112 4.5.2 Conflicts over Environmental Impacts and Indigenous Rights ................................ 114 4.6 Implications of the MAS Mining Politics for the Lithium Project ........................... 120 5 Lithium Exploitation in Bolivia...................................................................................... 124 5.1 Introduction to Evaporite Resources ............................................................................ 124 5.1.1 Industrial Uses of Lithium .............................................................................................. 126 5.1.2 Global Lithium Resources and Market Development ................................................ 128 5.1.3 Characteristics of the Bolivian Lithium Resources ..................................................... 131 5.1.4 Industrial Processing of Evaporite Resources ............................................................. 134 5.2 A Short History of Lithium Exploitation in Bolivia ................................................... 137 5.3 A Chronology of the MAS Lithium Project ................................................................. 143 5.4 The Lithium Production Region ................................................................................... 151 5.4.1 Socio-Economic Indicators and Poverty Prevalence .................................................. 152 5.4.2 Municipality Organization............................................................................................... 157 5.4.3 Land Cleavages and Local Actor Groups ..................................................................... 159 5.4.4 Indigenous Peoples and Territories ............................................................................... 161 6 Case Study Part I: Lithium Governance in Bolivia ..................................................... 165 6.1 A Flagship-Project of Public Ownership ...................................................................... 165 6.2 Lithium Vision and National Perspectives on the Project ......................................... 167 6.2.1 Delays, Infrastructural Conditions, and Human Resources....................................... 168 6.2.2 Long-Term Planning and Market Integration .............................................................. 172 6.2.3 Criticism and Government Reactions ........................................................................... 174 6.3 Internal Project Organization and Stakeholder Integration ....................................... 177 6.3.1 Competence Sharing and Decision-Making in the Lithium Project ......................... 177 6.3.2 Community Relations, Consultations, and Social Control ......................................... 182 6.3.3 Summary of Findings: Governance of Information ................................................... 189 ii 6.4 Socio-Economic Impacts and Distribution of Benefits ............................................. 190 6.4.1 Financial Regulations for the Lithium Project ............................................................. 191 6.4.2 Collective Land Claims and Revenue Distribution ..................................................... 196 6.4.3 Employment and Infrastructure .................................................................................... 197 6.4.4 Socioeconomic and Cultural Externalities .................................................................... 200 6.4.5 Summary of Findings: Benefit Governance ................................................................. 201 6.5 Environmental Impact Assessment and Externality Management ........................... 201 6.5.1 Potential Environmental Impacts of Lithium and Potassium Industrialization ..... 201 6.5.2 Government Strategy of Impact Assessment and Mitigation ................................... 209 6.5.3 Summary of Findings: Environmental Governance ................................................... 218 7 Case Study Part II: Grievance Dimensions of Lithium Governance ....................... 220 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 220 7.2 Local Project Support and the Expectation-Benefit Gap .......................................... 224 7.3 Centralized Project Management and Stakeholder Integration ................................. 236 7.4 Local Viewpoints on Externalities and Environmental Governance