Green Parties and Politics in the European Union The European Union offers both real opportunities and serious strategic dilemmas for green parties. Ecological problems demand transnational solutions and the EU has taken a central role in policy sectors related to the environment. At the same time, the EU’s increasing centralisation, bureaucratisation and prioritisation of economic growth violates deeply held green principles. What then are the strategies left open to green parties operating within the EU? Green Parties and Politics in the European Union explores the transnational goals, strategies and impact of green actors working at the EU level. Beginning with a overview of the development of green politics and actors within the EU, Elizabeth Bomberg argues that the ‘greening’ of European politics and the advancement of European integration are inextricably linked and that the EU presents a strategic dilemma to green parties. In short, how can Greens reconcile their radical, alternative politics with the EU’s incrementalist ethos and traditional practices? This dilemma informs all aspects of the greens’ European policy, their visions of an alternative Europe, their parliamentary and extra-parliamentary strategies, and their impact on European policies and politics. Elizabeth Bomberg draws on extensive research, field work and over 100 interviews with leading green politicians, NGO members, environmental and industrial lobbyists, EU officials and MEPs. It will be essential reading for those studying green politics and those interested in the political workings of the EU. Elizabeth Bomberg is lecturer in Politics at Stirling University, Scotland. European Public Policy Series Edited by Jeremy Richardson Department of Government, University of Essex Also available in the series: European Union Power and policy-making Jeremy Richardson EU social policy in the 1990s Gerda Falkner Democratic Spain Reshaping external relations in a changing world Richard Gillespie, Fernando Rodrigo and Jonathan Story Regulating Europe Giandomenico Majone Policy-making, European integration and the role of interest groups Sonia Mazey and Jeremy Richardson Adjusting to Europe The impact of the European Union on national institutions and policies Yves Meny, Pierre Muller and Jean Louis Quermonne Policy-making in the European Union Conceptual lenses and the integration process Laura Cram Politics of corporate taxation in the EU Knowledge and international policy agendas Claudio M. Radaelli Regions in Europe Patrick Le Gales and Christian LeQuesne European Commission Laura Cram and Jeremy Richardson Remaking social Europe Richard Goma Green Parties and Politics in the European Union Elizabeth Bomberg London and New York First published 1998 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 © 1998 Elizabeth Bomberg The right of Elizabeth Bomberg to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-98222-3 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-10264-2 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-10265-0 (pbk) TO JOHN Contents List of illustrations vii Acknowledgements viii Series editor’s preface x Introduction 1 1 Green politics in Europe 7 2 Green issues and environmental policy-making in 33 the European Union 3 Green visions of Europe 55 4 Green transnational strategies and electoral 77 performance 5 Greens and the European Parliament: an inside 99 look 6 The Greens’ policy influence in the European 123 Union 7 The Greens’ policy-making role: three case studies 147 8 Conclusion 167 Appendix 1: Green parties in the EU: profiles 177 Appendix 2: Key policy-making institutions of the EU 185 Notes 189 Bibliography 201 Index 217 Illustrations Figure 1.1 Green party types 24 Table 1.1 Green actors: goals and strategies 22 Table 4.1 1979 EP election results 81 Table 4.2 1984 EP election results 86 Table 4.3 1989 EP election results 90 Table 4.4 1994 EP election results 93 Table 5.1 GRAEL seats in the EP, 1984 101 Table 5.2 GGEP seats, July 1989 106 Table 5.3 GGEP MEPs, 1994–9 114 Table 6.1 Green Group in the European Parliament seminars 133 Table 7.1 Time line of Packaging Waste Directive 157 Acknowledgements An interesting variety of people and organisations have helped me complete this book. Early research for this project was financed by a grant from the Council of European Studies, the DAAD and the Center for German and European Studies (University of California, Berkeley). Later field work was supported by a grant from the University of Stirling. The Politics Department there deserves special thanks for their patience and support, not least during my periods of leave. The Centre for European Policy Studies in Brussels hosted me in 1995, a post facilitated by an ESRC grant on EU decision-making (R000235829). For critical readings of draft text and editing advice, I wish to thank Steve Breyman (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute); Stan Anderson, Michael Gordon and Peter Merkl (all three at the University of California, Santa Barbara); Neil Carter (University of York); Mary M. McKenzie (University of San Diego); Matt Paterson (University of Keele); Joachim Raschke (Universität Hamburg); and Michael Shackleton (European Parliament). Ralph Monö and the European Federation of Green Parties provided useful electoral data and knowledge. Ricardo Gomez (University of Glasgow) helped enormously with the compilation of data on national green parties (see Appendix I). For their Euro-hospitality and links in Brussels, I wish to thank Richard Doherty and Annette Schulte. Caroline Wintersgill (formerly of Routledge) offered editorial encouragement and understanding. Given this study’s heavy reliance on interviews, I am particularly grateful to all those who agreed to speak with me. All interviews were conducted on a non-attributable basis. My subjects included Commission officials (both in the services and cabinets), members and officials of the European Parliament, national green party members, environmental and industrial lobbyists, German, Belgium and British government officials based in Brussels and in national capitals. A complete list of interviewees and interview notes are on file in the Department of Politics, University of Stirling. I am especially indebted to all members and staff of the Green Group in the European Parliament who took time out to be interviewed. Only two ix Green MEPs declined to be interviewed. Preoccupied with their quest for more openness in the EU, they were perhaps too busy to speak to this researcher. On the other hand, GGEP press attaché Diana Johnstone deserves a particular mention for her assistance. A special thanks to GGEP member Monica Frassoni for being a friend as well as a knowledgeable source. Finally, I wish to thank my family (near and far) who offered unflagging moral support throughout the whole endeavour. My two sons, Miles and Calum, deserve credit for ensuring the book was not rushed or published prematurely. My deepest debt of gratitude is owed to John Peterson at the University of Glasgow. John edited the entire text without once losing his patience or humour. His advice, forbearance and support were far beyond that which I could reasonably expect, even from a husband. This book is dedicated to him. Series editor’s preface The ‘greening’ of politics—electoral politics, public policy-making and even the internal politics of private organisations such as oil companies—is now an established phenomenon of Western European political systems. No Member State in the European Union (or, indeed, those ‘aspirant’ states in the newly democratised nations of Eastern Europe) has been untouched by the political advance of green parties, environmental pressure groups and more loosely organised green social movements. Green interests are easily the most successful of the new wave of non- producer organisations, including women’s and consumer groups, that has impinged increasingly on the processes by which public policy is made—at all levels. At least two important features characterise these new groups and movements. They are often run by quite entrepreneurial individuals who are adept at mobilising public opinion and constructing political agendas. Second, they face an array of opportunity structures—or different policy- making arenas and venues—that they can exploit to considerable policy advantage. However, just as there is no such thing as a free lunch, so there are costs as well as benefits to these new organisations. One of the costs results from the fact that their membership is often fickle. As ‘credit card’ organisations, they have to be very active in the political marketplace in order to retain old members and attract new ones. This may lead them into public marketing strategies that can be inconsistent with their main long-term public policy goals. A second disadvantage is that, in the long run, influencing public policy might well depend on the adoption of a more ‘insider’ based strategy, inconsistent with attracting new supporters in the competitive marketplace for political activism. In the end, they need to sit down with their opponents—especially as those opponents become more sophisticated in responding to the green challenge and as new policy fashions, such as deregulation, privatisation and competitiveness emerge.