Van De Graaff: Human I. Historical Perspective 1. History of Anatomy © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Companies, 2001 History of Anatomy 1 Definition of the Science 2 Prescientific Period 2 Scientific Period 4 Clinical Case Study Answer 20 Chapter Summary 20 Review Activities 21 Clinical Case Study A 55-year-old women visits the village apothecary for her increasing shortness of breath. The physician, learning of the woman’s symptoms and finding swelling in her legs, makes the diagno- sis of dropsy and prescribes a course of therapy meant to rid the body of evil humors. He applies a dozen of his healthiest leeches to the woman’s legs and drains a pint of her blood by opening a vein in her arm. Within hours, the patient is feeling much better and breathing easily. The ex- perience reinforces to the doctor the concept of evil humors and the effectiveness of bloodletting as a therapy. Dropsy (L. hydrops; from Gk. hydor, water) is an antiquated term commonly referring to any condition of edema (accumulation of tissue fluid), and was typically a result of congestive heart failure. Current therapy for this condition is oral fluid restriction and medications that in- duce diuresis (increased urination) with the ultimate goal of decreasing fluid volume. It is no wonder that losing a pint of blood made this woman feel better in the short term. Unfortu- nately, repeated courses of this crude therapy left patients profoundly anemic (low red blood cell count) and actually worsened their heart failure. Throughout medical history, how has an accurate understanding of human anatomy and physiology led to better disease therapy? FIGURE: Blood letting was a technique of medical practice widely used for over two thousand years. Van De Graaff: Human I. Historical Perspective 1. History of Anatomy © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Companies, 2001 2 Unit 1 Historical Perspective CHAPTER 1 the structure of the body often has been stimulated by the desire DEFINITION OF THE SCIENCE of the medical profession to explain a body dysfunction. Various The science of human anatomy is concerned with the structural religions, on the other hand, have at one time or another stifled organization of the human body. The descriptive anatomical termi- the study of human anatomy through their restrictions on human nology is principally of Greek and Latin derivation. dissections and their emphasis on nonscientific explanations for diseases and debilitations. Objective 1 Define anatomy. Over the centuries, peoples’ innate interest in their own bodies and physical capabilities has found various forms of ex- Objective 2 Distinguish between anatomy, physiology, and pression. The Greeks esteemed athletic competition and ex- biology. pressed the beauty of the body in their sculptures. Many of the Objective 3 Explain why most anatomical terms are derived great masters of the Renaissance portrayed human figures in their from Greek and Latin words. art. Indeed, several of these artists were excellent anatomists be- cause their preoccupation with detail demanded it. Such an artis- Human anatomy is the science concerned with the structure of tic genius was Michelangelo, who captured the splendor of the the human body. The term anatomy is derived from a Greek human form in sculpture with the David (fig. 1.1) and in paint- word meaning “to cut up”; indeed, in ancient times, the word ings like those in the Sistine Chapel. anatomize was more commonly used than the word dissect. The Shakespeare’s reverence for the structure of the human science of physiology is concerned with the function of the body found expression in his writings: “What a piece of work is a body. It is inseparable from anatomy in that structure tends to re- man! How noble in reason! how infinite in faculty! In form and flect function. The term physiology is derived from another Greek moving, how express and admirable! In action how like an word—this one meaning “the study of nature.” The “nature” of angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! an organism is its function. Anatomy and physiology are both The paragon of animals!” (Hamlet 2.2.315–319). subdivisions of the science of biology, the study of living organ- In the past, human anatomy was an academic, purely de- isms. The anatomy of every structure of the body is adapted for scriptive science, concerned primarily with identifying and nam- performing a function, or perhaps several functions. ing body structures. Although dissection and description form The dissection of human cadavers (ka˘-dav’erz) has served the basis of anatomy, the importance of human anatomy today is as the basis for understanding the structure and function of the in its functional approach and clinical applications. Human human body for many centuries. Every beginning anatomy stu- anatomy is a practical, applied science that provides the founda- dent can discover and learn firsthand as the structures of the tion for understanding physical performance and body health. body are systematically dissected and examined. The anatomical Studying the history of anatomy helps us appreciate the relevant terms that a student learns while becoming acquainted with a science that it is today. structure represent the work of hundreds of dedicated anatomists of the past, who have dissected, diagrammed, described, and Knowledge Check named the multitude of body parts. Most of the terms that form the language of anatomy are of 1. What is the derivation and meaning of anatomy? Greek or Latin derivation. Latin was the language of the Roman 2. Explain the statement, Anatomy is a science based on ob- Empire, during which time an interest in scientific description servation, whereas physiology is based on experimentation was cultivated. With the decline of the Roman Empire, Latin be- and observation. came a “dead language,” but it retained its value in nomenclature 3. Why does understanding the biology of an organism de- because it remained unchanged throughout history. As a conse- pend on knowing its anatomy and physiology? quence, if one is familiar with the basic prefixes and suffixes (see 4. Discuss the value of using established Greekor Latin pre- the inside front cover of this text), many of the terms in the de- fixes and suffixes in naming newly described body structures. scriptive science of anatomy can be understood. Although the Greeks and Romans made significant contributions to anatomical terminology, it should be noted that many individuals from other cultures have also contributed to the science of human anatomy. As a scientific field of inquiry, human anatomy has had a PRESCIENTIFIC PERIOD rich, long, and frequently troubled heritage. The history of Evidence indicates that a knowledge of anatomy was of survival human anatomy parallels that of medicine. In fact, interest in value in prehistoric times and that it provided the foundation for medicine. anatomy: Gk. ana, up; tome, a cutting Objective 4 Explain why an understanding of human physiology: Gk. physis, nature; logos, study anatomy is essential in the science of medicine. biology: Gk. bios, life; logos, study cadaver: L. cadere, to fall Objective 5 Define trepanation and paleopathology. Van De Graaff: Human I. Historical Perspective 1. History of Anatomy © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Companies, 2001 CHAPTER 1 Chapter 1 History of Anatomy 3 FIGURE 1.2 Contemporary redrawings of large game mammals that were depicted on the walls of caves occupied by early Homo sapiens in western Europe. Presumably the location of the heart is drawn on the mammoth, and vulnerable anatomical sites are shown on the two bison. Prehistoric people needed a practical knowledge of anatomy simply for survival. From A Short History of Anatomy and Physiology from the Greeks to Harvey by C. Singer, 1957, Dover Publications, New York, NY. Reprinted by permission. clothing, or implements. Undoubtedly, they knew that the mus- cles functioned in locomotion and that they also provided a major source of food. The skin from mammals with its associated fur served as a protective covering for their own sparsely haired skin. Early humans knew that the skeletal system formed a durable framework within their bodies and those of other verte- brates. They used the bones from the animals on which they fed to fashion a variety of tools and weapons. They knew that their own bones could be broken through accidents, and that improper healing would result in permanent disability. They knew that if an animal was wounded, it would bleed, and that excessive loss of blood would cause death. Perhaps they also realized that a se- vere blow to the head could cause deep sleep and debilitate an animal without killing it. Obviously, they noted anatomical dif- ferences between the sexes, even though they could not have un- derstood basic reproductive functions. The knowledge these people had was of the basic, practical type—a knowledge neces- sary for survival. Certain surgical skills are also ancient. Trepanation (trep- FIGURE 1.1 Michelangelo completed the 17-foot-tall David in ′ 1504. Sculpted from a single block of white, flawless Carrara marble, a˘-na shun), the drilling of a hole in the skull, or removal of a por- this masterpiece captures the physical nature of the human body in tion of a cranial bone, seems to have been practiced by several an expression of art. groups of prehistoric people. Trepanation was probably used as a ritualistic procedure to release evil spirits, or on some patients, perhaps, to relieve cranial pressure resulting from a head wound. It is likely that a type of practical comparative anatomy is the oldest Trepanated skulls have been found repeatedly in archaeological science. Certainly, humans have always been aware of some of their sites (fig. 1.3). Judging from the partial reossification in some of anatomical structures and how they function.