Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... © 1996-2006 HyperJeff Network Sketching the History of History | Philo | Physics | Blog Statistical Mechanics [ Sources, Links, Notes ] and Thermodynamics (From about 1575 to 1980) Ideas of atomism, that heat is a mode Anti- of motion within bodies and that quity pressure is the result of such motion, are all floating around. Hero of Alexandria (see also here) writes Pneumatics, an investigation 1st on atmospheric air, summarizing a cent great deal of what was known at the AD time on syphons, pumps, the effects of heat on liquids, and engine designs. Al-Baqilani (d 1013) said to have 9th introduced atomism to the Muslim cent Kalam (perhaps influencing Leibniz). The loss of permanent magnetism 11th when materials are subjected to high The aeolipile of cent temperatures known in China. Hero F Commandine translates Hero of Alexandria's Pneumatics into Latin 1575 (translated earlier in 1547 into Italian by Aleotti). Santorre Santorio (see here also) (1561-1636) is known to have been using an early thermoscope and also writes Commentariar in artem medicinalem Galeni. Santorre writes 1612 to Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) including sketches of his device, to which Galileo replies that it was an invention of his. The priority remains unclear. 1 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... Thermoscopes of Santorio are 1615 sensitive enough to detect near-by body heat and candles. Johannes van Helmont defines "gas" 1620 (the Flemish word for chaos) for air-like substances. Galileo points out that simple pumps can only raise water about 32 feet, 1638 though this had been common knowledge to pump makers of the time. Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, invents a thermometer using liquid in 1641 a glass tube with one end sealed, a slight improvement to Galileo's thermoscope. Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) 1643 invents the barometer, also producing the first partial vacuum. RenĂ© Descartes' (1596-1650) treatise Principa Philosophiae published in Amsterdam. The work extends effords to formulate a fully 1644 mathematico-mechanical model of the world, including concepts of nonlocality, the absence of any vacuum and his vortex model of atoms. Gilles Personne de Roberval (1602-1675) performed an oft-quoted experiment on air pressure whereby a carp's swim-bladder is partially 1647 removed, squeezed of almost all air and tied shut. The carp is then placed in a Torricellian vacuum and the bladder is observed to expand. Florin Perrier experimentally shows that the height achieved by mercury 1648 in a barometer decreased as one scaled a mountain, a theoretical 2 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... prediction of his brother-in-law, Blaise Pascal, and also known as the Puy de DĂ´me experiment. ca (Coffee begins to be important to and 1650 catch on in Europe.) Jean Pecquet's (1622-1674) book on psychology popularizes the Roberval experiment (English translation in 1653). He also introduces the term 1651 "elater" as the tendency of air to expand, and theorizes that air on the earth's surface is compressed by the weight of the atmospheric air. Otto von Guericke's (1602-86) experiment with two iron hemispheres held together by a strong partial vacuum being strong 1654 enough to resist the pull of a train of horses on either side. Ferdinand II invents the sealed thermometer. Robert Boyle (1627-91) publishes New Experiments Physio- Mechanicall, touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects. One experiment clearly shows the dependency on Torricelli's vacuum on ambient air pressure. Also presented are discussions of both Pecquet's idea of air modelled by coiled-up wool-like 1660 or spring-like atoms (which was preferred by Boyle) and of Descartes' idea of whirling particles which repell one another at short Robert Boyle distances. In response to Boyle's ideas, Franciscus Linus (1595-1675) proposes a theory whereby a vacuum is explained by the creation of an 3 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... invisible collection of thread-like "funiculus," which strive to hold nearby objects together. Richard Townley (1628-1707) and Henry Power's (1623-1668) experiments establishing the PV law for expansion (the so-called "Boyle's Law" or "Marriotte's Law"). Boyle adds an appendix to his 1660 work, responding to the criticisms of Linus and Thomas Hobbes, 1661 presenting improved experimental results and giving a version of what is now known as "Boyle's Law" for the case of compression. Boyle's "Defense of the Doctrine 1662 touching the Spring and Weight of the Air." Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) writes On the Equilibrium of Liquids (published posthumously) suggesting that pressure is transmitted equally in all directions in a fluid (later known as 1663 "Pascal's law"), probably discovered around 1648. Power's book Experimental Philosophy, publishing early results on the PV law. Johann Joachim Becher's Subterranean Physics, a tract on alchemy and experimental results on 1669 minerals, introduces the idea that a "terra pingus" (oily earth) causes fire. (This idea is later picked up to form the phlogiston theory of heat.) Boyle discovers that when acid interacts with certain metals a 1670 flammable gas is produced, known now as Hydrogen. 4 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... Christiaan Huygens (1629-95) 1673 builds a motor driven by the explosion of gunpowder. John Mayow suggests that air may consist of two different gases from 1674 experiments done on mice and candles, reported in his Five Medico- Physical Treatises. EdmĂ© Mariotte (~1620-1684) independently finds relationship between pressure and volume, in his 1676 work On the Nature of Air. (Known as "Mariotte's law" in France, and "Boyle's law" elsewhere.) Mariotte's The Motion of Water and 1685 Other Fluids published (posthumously). Denis Papin (1647-1712) uses steam 1690 pressure to move a piston for the first time. Georg Ernts Stahl introduces the idea 1697 of phlogiston as the agent of burning and rusting. Guillaume Amontons extrapolates the idea of absolute zero from the observation that equal drops in temperature produce equal drops in pressure, and since pressure cannot become negative, there must be a 1702 lower limit to temperature. Ole Christensen Rømer devises a temperature scale based on the two phenomena of the boiling point of water and the temperature at which snow begins to form. Francis Hauksbee shows that sound 1705 needs air for propagation. 1712 Thomas Newcomen's steam engine. 5 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... Gabriel Fahrenheit's mercury 1714 thermometer introducing his temperature scale. (see notes) Jakob Hermann (1678-1733) proposes the first definite measure of the heat of molecular motion in his work on rational mechanics, 1716 Phoronomia. He postulates that (in modern lingo) pressure is proportional to density and to the square of the average velocity of the particles of motion. Stahl's Foundations of Dogmatic and Experimental Chemistry popularizes Jakob Hermann 1723 phlogiston and the ideas of Johann Becher. Hermann Boerhaave proposes that 1724 heat is a fluid of some sort. Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), extending Johann Bernoulli's work on Descartes' vortex cosmology, models air with tightly-spaced, spinning spheres. He formulate an equation of state relating humidity, 1729 pressure, density and velocity, finding the Townley-Power-Boyle law as an approximation. He calculates air molecules to be about 477 m/s at mean conditions, and that this is about the speed of sound. Johann Juncker's Conspectus of 1730 Chemistry systematically expands phlogiston theory. Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), in a treatise on hydrodynamics worked out in the period from 1728 to 1733, 1733 gives a derivation of the gas laws from a billiard ball model, derives the Boyle-Mariotte relation and used conservation of mechanical energy to Daniel Bernoulli 6 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... show that as temperature changes the pressure will change proportionally to the square of the particle velocities. This text marks the first truly statistical treatment of kinetic theory. A significantly updated edition of the text is published in 1738. The paper is all but forgotten until 1859. George Martine establishes that the volume of an object is not 1739 proportional to the amount of heat it has. Anders Celsius (1701-1744) publishes "Observations on two persistent degrees on a thermometer," basing his scale on the 1742 freezing point (100 degrees) and boiling points (0 degrees) of water. (The system is reoriented in 1745 by Carl Linnaeus, a.k.a. Carl von LinnĂ©.) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonossov publishes a paper on the causes of 1744 heat and cold, stating that heat is a form of motion. (also, Carl von LinnĂ©, 1707-1778) 1744 reorients Celsius's scale. Lomonosov formulates laws of conservation of energy and mass. Through about 1760, he performs a number of theoretical investigations 1748 about molecular structures, speculating on the effects of translation, vibration, and rotations of such molecules. William Cullen's An Essay on the Cold Produced by Evaporating Fluids and 1756 some Other Means of Producing Cold. 7 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... Rudjer Giuseppe Boskovic (1711-1787) mathematically models molecules via points subjected to intermolecular forces which are 1758 attractive nearby but repulsive at greater distances.