The Boundaries between Us This page intentionally left blank The Boundaries between Us Natives and Newcomers along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, – E D P. B ) The Kent State University Press , © 2006 by The Kent State University Press, Kent, Ohio 44242 All rights reserved Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2005016600 isbn 978-1-60635-109-3 (paper) isbn 978-0-87338-844-3 (cloth) Maufactured in the United States of America library of congress cataloging-in-publication data The boundaries between us : Natives and newcomers along the frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750–1850 / edited by Daniel P. Barr p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-87338-844-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) ∞ isbn 978-1-60635-109-3 (pbk : alk. paper) ∞ 1. Indians of North America—First contact with Europeans—Ohio River Valley. 2. Indians of North America—Land tenure—Ohio River Valley. 3. Indians of North America—Ohio River Valley—Government relations. 4. Frontier and pioneer life—Ohio River Valley. 5. Whites—Ohio River Valley—Relations with Indians. 6. Ohio River Valley—Race relations. 7. Ohio River Valley—Politics and government. I. Barr, Daniel P., 1971– e78.04b58 2005 977'.02—dc22 2005016600 British Library Cataloging-in-Publication data are available. 15 14 13 12 11 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Introduction Fluid Boundaries and Negotiated Identities: Intersection, Accommodation, and Conflict on an Evolving Frontier ix . The Shawnees and the English Captives and War, – . . “This Land Is Ours and Not Yours” The Western Delawares and the Seven Years’ War in the Upper Ohio Valley, – . . “We Speak as One People” Native Unity and the Pontiac Indian Uprising . “The Indians Our Real Friends” The British Army and the Ohio Indians, – . . Two Paths to Peace Competing Visions of Native Space in the Old Northwest . “A Superior Civilization” Appropriation, Negotiation, and Interaction in the Northwest Territory, – c . Three Men from Three Rivers Navigating between Native and American Identity in the Old Northwest Territory . . Negotiating Law on the Frontier Responses to Cross-Cultural Homicide in Illinois, – . . “Justice and Public Policy” Indian Trade, Treaties, and Removal from Northern Indiana, – . Bringing About the Dawn Agriculture, Internal Improvements, Indian Policy, and Euro-American Hegemony in the Old Northwest, – . “A Perfect Apollo” Keokuk and Sac Leadership during the Removal Era . Bibliography Contributors Index s e l i M 0 0 2 r e v i ) R k h e h a g a c e n r r n r n u a a a r o b C i g h B r s e a . t i u a o t l t q W i s 0 a n N f u P 0 f S ( O t 1 u r t e B t o k i F a P L t r r e v o i R F y n A M e l r l h e g e v o i R n o a l n e g h a 0 r e v a i k R i o i m h o O t a e e i i k r r a E E a t e e W t k k e i a a r L L er Muskingum Riv a M t i r o e v r i t s R i e t r e m D e i v a R o e r i i F m m a u M i a M M e t n r y a o F W r e v i R r h e s v a n i a b a R e g i k W o h i a c h i L O M s e r t r e v i r a R r a i a e i v i r k h s R o a r C k e k v e i s c R t k P a o s i r u K o R o n n i l F e l k I u a S er iv i R ipp Mississ This page intentionally left blank Introduction: Fluid Boundaries and Negotiated Identities Intersection, Accommodation, and Conflict on an Evolving Frontier The settlement history of the United States’ first national frontier, the Old Northwest Territory, is rich with compelling drama and captivating charac- ters, especially when focused on the interaction between native peoples and Euro-American newcomers. One can hardly envision this aspect of the re- gion’s early history without bringing to mind Tecumseh or Black Hawk, Wil- liam Henry Harrison or Anthony Wayne, while images of Indian warriors stalking Arthur St. Clair’s doomed army in the Ohio wilderness contrast with visions of American pioneers successfully establishing themselves upon the fields and prairies of Indiana and Illinois. Yet outside of these familiar stories and comfortable understandings of Indians and white settlers in the Old Northwest Territory, there is much that remains unexplored, understudied, or misunderstood about cultural interaction and accommodation. Such sen- timent was raised, in part, by historians Andrew Cayton and Peter Onuf, whose interpretive work The Midwest and the Nation: Rethinking the His- tory of an American Region critiqued the existing body of scholarship on the Old Northwest Territory. Cayton and Onuf asserted their intention to “en- courage historians to think about the region in more systematic ways than they have in the past . [and] to suggest that the Old Northwest was more than a generic frontier or a cultural crossroads.”They hoped to excite histori- ans into a vast reexamination of the Old Northwest Territory and the states it eventually became, a process that began with the meetings of native inhabi- tants and newcomers. Moreover, this conceptual call-to-arms underscored an understanding that the Old Northwest Territory occupies a fundamental place in the early history of American westward expansion. Here for the new American nation came the first great challenge of the West, to manage and control not only its claimed territory, but also the diverse peoples—Indian ix x and white—whose lives, ambitions, and futures were tied to the region. The region thus served as a primer for the larger process of contact, conquest, and colonialism that would unfold as the United States expanded westward.1 The Old Northwest Territory was fertile ground for conflict, accommoda- tion, resistance, and adaptation, and it thus remains fertile ground for histori- cal inquiry. A generation of new studies has reopened the ground in the Old Northwest in an effort to advance our understandings of the region, its di- verse peoples, and their significance in the larger realm of American history.2 Much of recent scholarship pertaining to the Old Northwest Territory de- rives its focus from significant trends that emerged in early American histori- ography over the past few decades. Among the most vibrant have been the (now-not-so) “‘New’ Indian history” and the growing number of studies that focus on the eastern frontiers of North America. The New Indian history grew in large part from the efforts of a specialized group of historians, gen- erally dubbed ethnohistorians, who eschewed longstanding but worn out themes of American Indian victimization and helplessness in favor of agency, in the process offering compelling new insights into the diverse ways that na- tive peoples influenced, shaped, and participated in American history. While the body of work in this field is broad, much of the best scholarship has ad- dressed early American history, where the meeting of diffuse cultures was so crucial. Scholars such as Colin Calloway, Richard White, R. David Edmunds, and James Axtell, among many others, have declined to settle for viewing Indian history through the old lens of interpretation—the simplistic, often redundant tale of the violent clash between Indian nations and the Anglo- Americans who dispossessed them, a tired interpretive vehicle driven most often by the monolithic theme of inevitable conquest—and instead focused their vision on the complicated interrelationships that grew out of the diverse meetings, intersections, and conflicts between natives and newcomers along the frontiers of early America. As a consequence, they have opened intriguing new avenues for investigation into what Colin Calloway has termed “New Worlds for All.”3 Concurrently, albeit somewhat younger than the New Indian scholarship, there have been transforming studies of the importance of frontier settlement in early American history. Focused on the eastern frontiers of North America, which in truth stretch geographically from the Atlantic seashore to the Mis- sissippi River (though the eastern frontier is too often referred to simply as the colonial backcountry), these works, like those of New Indian history, move beyond familiar historical models—namely the seemingly linear evolu- tion of the transplanted British communities along the Atlantic coast into the United States—and instead attribute great importance to the intersection of Indians, westward moving colonists, and empires in midland North America. xi Here, on the fluid frontiers of early America, historians have found patterns of interaction, cooperation, competition, and conflict that established impor- tant precedents and left lasting legacies for the future westward expansion of what would become the United States, offering interesting new avenues of exploration for Frederick Jackson Turner’s much maligned but incredibly re- silient notion that the frontier experience shaped American culture.4 Most importantly, there has been a trend to blend these two methodologies into a singular approach, as both the New Indian history and eastern frontier studies share a common understanding that the significance of cultural inter- action is more often found in the meeting than in the end result.