University of Alberta Perceptions and Parameters of Education as a Treaty Right within the Context of Treaty 7 Sheila Carr-Stewart A thesis submitted to the Faculîy of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Administration and Leadership Department of Educational Policy Studies Edmonton, Alberta spring 2001 National Library Bibliothèque nationale m*u ofCanada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographk Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. nie Wellington Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Oîîawa ON K1A ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/nlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantid extracts fkom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or othenirise de celle-ci ne doivent êeimprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation . In memory of John and Betty Carr and Pat and MyrtIe Stewart Abstract On September 22, 1877, representatives of the Blackfoot Confederacy, Tsuu T'ha and Stoney Nations, and Her Majesty's Govemment signed Treaty 7. Over the next century, Canada provided educational services based on the Constitution Act, Section 91(24). The People maintained that their right to education stemrned fkom Treaty 7. The purpose of this dissertation is to research The Peoples' awareness and understanding of westem education prior to the signing of Treaty 7, the treaty educational discussions, the provision of education, and the basis for the consistent demand for education as a treaty right. The literature review focuses on the Treaty discussions. Treaty 7 Elders and Tribal Council(1996) rnaintained that "the Crown thought that what was written down was the final word, [and] the Aboriginal people believed that what was said in the discussions . was as valid as what was written down" (p. 200). A conflict central to Asch's (1997) argument that both the oral understandings of the treaties and the written materials were essential for the cultural integrity of both partners (p. x). Cardinal (1970) stated "Indian Affairs holds the policy that education is a privilege-not a right. Our treaties expressly Say otherwise" (p. 37). Rrsearch methodology focuses on the human or social action within the histoncal setting and "begins fiom the point of view that inquiry is a mater of perception of qualities and appraisal of their value (Schwandt, 1997, p. 130). An interdisciplinary approach to bath Wntten documents and recorded oral history enabled the researcher to constmct the c'histories" of the signing of Treaty 7. This research found that by 1877, through contact with explorers, fur traders, and missionaries, The People were cognizant of westem educational practices. Following the treaty signing, parents Eeely sent their children to community day schools but resisted pressure to enroll their children in industnal schools. Regdations eliminated choice, the residential schools became the nom and provided dismal educational senices. This research recommends that Canada recognize The People's treaty nght to education, undertake to counteract a century of failure to provide quality educational programming, hancially support First Nation educational govemance mechanisms, and ensure Fust Nation children enjoy the educational opportunities their ancestors sought and agreed to when signing Treaty 7. Acknowledgements The undertaking of this dissertation owes a great deal to those I have worked with, listened to, interacted with, and Iearned fiom over the years. 1 wish to thank the people of Treaty 7 for the opportunïty to have worked with them. I am especially gratefbl to Helen Manyfingers, Shirley Crawler, and John Snow and his family for their fkiendship and support over the years. I also wish to pay tribute to the late Hubert Low Hom, Siksika Nation Councillor, who a number of years ago focussed my attention on Treaîy 7 and education as a treaty right. To the University of Alberta, my appreciation for the opportunity to pursue acadernic studies and for the research grants fkom the Faculty of Education and the Mary Louise Imrie Graduate Student Award which made this research possible. To the staff of the Glenbow Museum, the Provincial Archives of Manitoba, the National Library, and the National Archives of Canada, many thanks for the assistance and interest in my research endeavours. My profound appreciation is extended to Dr. Jose da Costa, my advisor, whose support, guidance, and interest in this topic encouraged me to bnng this project to completion. I also wish to extend my appreciation to my committee members for their support and guidance. To my husbanâ, Patrick Stewart, without whose encouragement and support this research would not have been completed, a special thank you. Table of Contents Page CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...... ........ ....................................................................... 1 Need for the Study ................................................................................................. 4 Purpose of the Study ............................ ................................................................ 6 Specific Research Questions .......... ... ................................................................... 7 Research Questions ..........................,........... .......................................................... 7 Operational Definitions .............. .. ............................................................... 8 .............................................. Assumptions .............................................. 10 Significance of the Study ....................... .. .......................................................... 10 CHAPTER Ki: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................................................... 13 Historical Precedent and Temtorial Expansion .................................................... 15 Nation to Nation .................................................................................................. 17 Syrnbols of Power ................................. ... ......................*....................................... 21 Canadian Indian Policy ......................................................................................... 23 Education ............................. ... ........................................................................... 24 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHOD .................................................................. 29 "Doing History": The Discourse of the ''Histories" of the Past ........................ 29 The Discourse of Culture and Power .......................... .- ........................................ 33 The Discourse of the Past ................................................................................ 34 The Discourse ofOral History .......................................................................... 36 Trustworthiness ....................,, ......... ...................................................................... 39 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 39 Delimitaiions ...................................................................................................... 41 Ethics ..................................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER IV: COLONLAL EDUCATION: TO EACH HIS OWN ............................... 42 Developrnent of Education Systems in the French and British North Amencan Colonies ................................................................................................ 46 French Educational Traditions in New France ........................................... 46 The French Regime and Formal First Nation Education ................. ....... 49 The Treaty of Paris and the Era of British Colonial Education ..................... 52 Page French, British and American Forma1 Educational Influences in the Canadas ........................................... .... ............................................... 52 The Maritimes: British and American Educational Influences ..................... 57 Nova Scotia ............................................................................................ 58 New Brunswick ................................................................. ............. 59 The British Colonial Era: Forma1 First Nation Education ........................... .. 61 CHAPTER V: DOG DAYS TO FUR TRADERS ........................................................... 69 The Creator's Gift: The Prairie Landscape ......................... .. ............................ 69 Lifelong Education ..................................................................................... 73 Commuaity Life............................................................................................ 74 Fur Traders and Explorers ................ .. .... .... ............................................ 77