Bangor University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY The role of UNESCO in sustaining cultural diversity in the Sultanate of Oman, 1970- 2020 Al-Abri, Mahmood Award date: 2020 Awarding institution: Bangor University Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 30. Sep. 2021 The role of UNESCO in sustaining cultural diversity in the Sultanate of Oman, 1970-2020 Mahmood Al-Abri 500423363 Bangor University -Wales - United Kingdom Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of Bangor University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2020 – School of Social Sciences i I hereby declare that this thesis is the results of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. All other sources are acknowledged by bibliographic references. This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree unless, as agreed by the University, for approved dual awards. --- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Yr wyf drwy hyn yn datgan mai canlyniad fy ymchwil fy hun yw’r thesis hwn, ac eithrio lle nodir yn wahanol. Caiff ffynonellau eraill eu cydnabod gan droednodiadau yn rhoi cyfeiriadau eglur. Nid yw sylwedd y gwaith hwn wedi cael ei dderbyn o’r blaen ar gyfer unrhyw radd, ac nid yw’n cael ei gyflwyno ar yr un pryd mewn ymgeisiaeth am unrhyw radd oni bai ei fod, fel y cytunwyd gan y Brifysgol, am gymwysterau deuol cymeradwy. ii Abstract Since joining UNESCO in 1972, two years after the late Sultan Qaboos bin Said took power in Oman, the Sultanate has witnessed significant development in various fields, including culture. This thesis highlights the role of UNESCO in sustaining cultural diversity in Oman over fifty years. The research seeks to answer two questions: how has UNESCO contributed to the development of the cultural scene and cultural diversity in Oman in this period, and what is the relationship between the aims and the outcomes of UNESCO activities in relation to the Sultanate? The study assesses UNESCO's role as a major multilateral actor facilitating collective cultural diplomacy and preserving cultural heritage. The first part of the thesis explains how UNESCO’s activities are designed to help member states preserve and maintain their cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible. It assesses the effectiveness of UNESCO in relation to member states and discusses the obstacles UNESCO encounters in its effort to carry out its responsibilities. This leads to a discussion of Oman-UNESCO relations, and their impact on Oman’s cultural heritage. The argument of the thesis is supported by empirical research using a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The study population included everyone involved in UNESCO's work in cultural affairs relevant to Oman, both in UNESCO headquarters, Paris, and in Muscat. The interviews included a series of questions on the meaning of cultural diplomacy, cultural diversity, tangible heritage and intangible heritage. A mixed method, qualitative and quantitative, design was used to collect data. A survey questionnaire, with 34 questions, was distributed to 10 main institutions that deal with culture and heritage in Oman. This produced quantitative data that was analysed using SPSS. In addition, 19 semi-structured interviews were conducted in Oman and UNESCO-Paris with some experts from both sides. The results lead to an analysis of themes which include understandings of some UNESCO themes like cultural and natural heritage, tangible and intangible heritage, and cultural diversity. The findings show that despite many challenges and the financial crisis, UNESCO is an effective instrument of soft power and the strong ties with Oman have mutually facilitated their activities in cultural diplomacy. The results also show that the cultural scene in Oman including sustaining cultural diversity developed strongly in the last five decades and that the Sultanate’s international experience, including membership of UNESCO, helped the country to promote its cultural and natural heritage. iii Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Howard Davis. It would not have been possible to complete this thesis, without his permanent encouragement and support. Having a periodic debate with him, face to face or by emails, was one of the unforgettable stages of my thesis. I would also like to thank the School of Social Sciences in Bangor University for their moral and financial support, especially when I travelled to Paris to collect data. In Oman, I am very grateful to Her Excellency Dr. Madiha Al-Shaibania, Minister of Education and Chair of the Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science, who encouraged me to study, and was a key reason behind the success. My thanks also go to the Secretary-General of the Commission / Mohammed Al-Yaqoubi, and to all my colleagues who provided me with the necessary support and information. Lastly, this thesis is dedicated to the late Sultan Qaboos bin Said, may God rest his soul, who passed away while I was writing this thesis. It is also for my late father and my mother, the most beautiful thing decorating my life; my wife, without which and her encouragement and patience, I would not have accomplished this huge work; my brothers, sisters and family, who always I thank God for being in my life and for standing always with me. Thank you all. iv Table of Contents Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgments iv Table of contents vii Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Chapter 2. Literature Review: Oman - Historical and Cultural Roots 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 History of Oman 5 2.2.1 A geographic sketch 5 2.2.2 Maritime history 6 2.2.3 Oman-the US relation: a model of coexistence 10 2.2.4 Oman in the 20th century 11 2.3 Modern renaissance of Oman 12 2.3.1 The reign of Sultan Qaboos 12 2.3.2 The Basic Law of the State 16 2.3.3 Sources of political thought of Sultan Qaboos 18 2.4 Political participation in Oman 18 2.4.1 Shura in Oman 18 2.4.2 Oman Council 19 2.4.3 The Sultan's Annual tours 21 2.5 Building identity 22 2.6 Omani diplomacy and foreign policy 24 2.6.1 Oman's foreign policy 24 2.6.2 Sultan Qaboos’ Academic Chairs 27 2.7 Omani Heritage and Cultural Diversity 28 2.7.1 Omani Heritage 28 2.7.2 Oman religion and languages 30 v Islam and Ibadhi doctrine 31 Languages in Oman 32 2.7.3 Oman Cultural Diversity 34 2.7.4 Education System in Oman 35 2.8 Summary 36 Chapter 3. Literature Review: UNESCO - World Cultural Diversity and 38 Intercultural Dialogue 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 UNESCO 39 3.2.1 A brief history 39 3.2.2 Governance 40 3.2.3 UNESCO Staff numbers 42 3.2.4 Principles of UNESCO's work 43 1. Education for the 21st century 44 2. Fostering freedom of expression 45 3. Protecting heritage and fostering creativity 47 4. Learning to live together 48 5. Building knowledge societies 49 6. One planet one ocean 50 7. Science for a sustainable future 51 3.3 Globalising Heritage 52 3.3.1 World Heritage 53 3.3.2 The World Heritage Convention, 1972 55 3.3.3 The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible 58 Cultural Heritage, 2003 3.3.4 UNESCO’s role in world cultural diversity and world 59 sustainable development 3.3.5 The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the 63 Diversity of Cultural Expressions, 2005 3.3.6 The shortcomings of 2005-Convention 65 vi 3.4 UNESCO work determinants and cultural challenges 66 The Independent External Evaluation of UNESCO (IEE) 68 3.5 Towards World Cultural Diversity 69 3.6 Conclusion 71 Chapter 4. Literature Review: Oman-UNESCO Relations: Towards a 73 stronger bond 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 The Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and 75 Science (ONCECS) 4.2.1 The foundation of the ONCECS 75 4.2.2 The Organizational Structure of the ONCECS 76 4.2.3 The Specialized Committees of the National Commission 77 4.2.4 The ONCECS's Secretariat Specializations 77 4.2.5 The General Secretariat of the ONCECS 79 4.2.6 The Staff Evolution of the ONCECS's General Secretariat 80 4.3 Conventions and Memorandums of Cooperation 80 4.3.1 Conventions between UNESCO and Oman 81 4.3.2 Memoranda of understanding signed with UNESCO 82 4.4 Main joint-actions between Oman and UNESCO 83 4.4.1 The Visit of the late Sultan Qaboos to UNESCO 84 4.4.2 Fulk A’ Salama, a symbol of peace and dialogue among 85 peoples 4.4.3 The UNESCO-Sultan Qaboos Prize for Environmental 85 Conservation 4.4.4 UNESCO Medals to Sultan Qaboos 86 4.4.5 Some of the permanent projects with UNESCO 86 Fulaij Fort Theatre 87 UNESCO – Oman Chairs 87 The Omani National Bioethics Committee (NBC) 88 vii The Omani National Committee for the International 88 Hydrological Programme The Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) 88 UNESCO