EMHJ • Vol. 23 No. 12 • 2017 Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal La Revue de Santé de la Méditerranée orientale Commentary The forgotten history of pre-modern epidemiology: contribution of Ibn An-Nafis in the Islamic golden era Ghazi Kayali 1,2 Introduction a description of the disease prognosis tell what epidemic diseases will attack of several patients. Hence, this was the the city, either in summer or in winter, Hippocrates (around 460−370 BCE) first epidemiology work to present case and what each individual will be in dan- was a Greek physician and philosopher series, a modern design for observa- ger of experiencing from the change who is considered the father of mod- tional studies. For most of the cases, he of regimen”. Hence, he introduced the ern medicine (Figure 1). The history provided information about age, gen- concept of endemicity in contrast to of epidemiology typically starts with der, place of residence and the seasonal epidemic diseases that occur out of the Hippocrates in about 400 BCE but conditions at the time of onset of the routine. He associates endemicity with then more than 2000 years are skipped illness. After describing the symptoms, the climatic conditions of each region. until the birth of modern epidemiology Hippocrates described the outcome in Another important concept in this in the 17th century CE with the work terms of morbidity and mortality. He book is the association of place, water of John Graunt, followed by William also discussed disease modes of trans- and food with physical and emotional Farr and John Snow in the 19th cen- mission and recognized that certain health. Hippocrates observed that a tury (1). However, between the time of “genetic” predispositions could lead person’s diet and alcohol consumption Hippocrates and the 17th century, the to disease. This was evident when he were directly associated with disease. Islamic golden age of science occurred discussed the case of a feverish woman He further observed that people with (8th−16th century CE) (2). whose symptoms were brought on by sedentary lifestyles tended to be more This work attempts to fill this gap eating grapes and who had a “congenital obese and those who were obese typi- of 2000 years by tracing the contribu- tendency to phthisis”. Illness of another cally had reproductive health problems. tions of Muslim scientists to the field two cases was attributed to drinking and He directly attributed certain diseases of epidemiology. The epidemiological sexual indulgence. The case of Apol- to poor water quality. Stagnant waters concepts described by Hippocrates are lonius was clearly a foodborne episode were directly linked to the occurrence highlighted followed by a discussion of as Hippocrates states that, “Having of diarrhoea and dysentery, especially how his work influenced the work of eaten beef, and drunk unseasonably, in the summer, while consumption of Muslim scientists, in particular Ibn An- he became a little heated at first, and water with a high mineral content was Nafis, who preserved and advanced the betook himself to bed, and having used directly attributed to having kidney field until the European Renaissance. large quantities of milk, that of goats and problems. sheep, and both boiled and raw, with a Hippocrates bad diet otherwise, great mischief was Ibn An-Nafis occasioned by all these things.” In his book, Of the Epidemics (3), Hip- In another book, On Airs, Waters and The Muslim-Arab physician Alaa Al- pocrates introduced several concepts Places (4), Hippocrates presented the Din Ali Ibn Abi Al-Hazm Al-Qurashi of epidemiology that are considered the thesis that diseases should be studied in Al-Demashki Al-Masri El-Safii, better fundamentals of modern epidemiol- light of the season in which they happen, known as Ibn An-Nafis, was born in ogy. His main thesis was that disease the quality of the available water and the Damascus, Syria in 1210 CE (Figure 1) causality can be attributed to climate, prevailing environmental conditions. (5−7). He spent the first half of his life in seasonal variations and location. He Hippocrates drew a distinction between Damascus where he studied medicine. noted that habits, regimens and person- epidemic and endemic diseases. He He then settled in Cairo, Egypt where al pursuits are all factors associated with explained that a good physician, “as the he practised at its largest hospital at the disease occurrence. His book included season and the year advances, he can time, Al-Bimaristan Al-Nasiri (5). He 1Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas Health Sciences Center, Houston, Texas. 2Human Link, Hazmieh, Lebanon (Correspondence to: Ghazi Kayali: [email protected]). Received: 19/07/16; accepted: 12/02/17 854 https://doi.org/10.26719/2017.23.12.854 املجلة الصحية لرشق املتوسط املجلد الثالث والعرشون العدد الثاين عرش lived for 78 years and died in Cairo in Hippocrates and his most relevant work and 3). Ibn An-Nafis’ book was not a 1288 (5). His most influential work was A commentary on Hippocrates’ “Of mere translation of the original work was in the field of medicine and he is the Epidemics”. Ibn An-Nafis also wrote by Hippocrates but rather a critical ap- credited with discovering the pulmo- A commentary on Hippocrates’ Aphorisms praisal of it. nary blood circulation (2,6,7). He is also based on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates In the first constitution of Hippo- credited with early work in cardiology where both authors, each in his own crates’ Of the Epidemics, Hippocrates (8,9). However, his interests extended book, showed their prowess as early opens with the phrase: “In Thasus, beyond medicine and included epide- epidemiologists. about the autumn equinox, and under miology, nutrition, Islamic religion and the Pleiades…”. Ibn An-Nafis opened philosophy as evidenced by at least 24 his book by providing an explanation of books authored by him. why Hippocrates specified the location As a scholar, Ibn An-Nafis was A commentary on “Thasus” explaining that geographic influenced by the works of his prede- Hippocrates’ "Of the location and not only climate is impor- cessors. He studied the works of Ibn Epidemics" (Sharh Kitab tant when studying disease occurrence. Sina (Avicenna, about 980−1037 Al-Epidemia) (11) Both scholars embraced the notion CE), Al-Razi (Rhazes, about 865−925 that imbalances in temperature and CE), Galen (about 130−199 CE) and Hippocrates’ book Of the Epidemics humidity were causes of disease, an ac- Hippocrates (2,5,10). It is worthwhile was translated into Arabic by Ibn Ishaq, cepted biological dogma in their times. mentioning here that the vast majority based on which, Ibn An-Nafis wrote his However, Ibn An-Nafis tries to provide of the works of Hippocrates and Galen commentary on Of the Epidemics. An biological plausibility for this notion by were translated into Arabic, especially ancient Arabic copy of this book dated giving a potential biological mechanism, by the Christian-Arab scholars Hanin 1215 AH (1800−1801 CE) is available according to the accepted biological Ibn Ishaq, Yuhanna Ibn Al-Batriq and on microfilm at the Egyptian National concepts of the time, through which hu- Qusta Ibn Luqa (5). As an epidemi- Library and Archives in Cairo and was midity can cause disease. Both scholars ologist, Ibn An-Nafis was influenced by reviewed for this analysis (Figures 2 described the distribution of disease by Figure 1 Hippocrates (left) and Ibn An-Nafis (right) 855 EMHJ • Vol. 23 No. 12 • 2017 Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal La Revue de Santé de la Méditerranée orientale demographic categories, but Ibn An- Nafis explained that people of different ages and genders have different biologi- cal processes and occupational hazards that contribute to the onset of disease. In his analysis of the second consti- tution, Ibn An-Nafis explained the ex- posure−outcome association laid down by Hippocrates. He provided a better definition of the seasons (exposure) using astrological signs, and then cat- egorized outcome under several groups from mild to severe. An example here would be Ibn An-Nafis’ categorization of respiratory illness from mild colds to tuberculosis. In the explanation of the third constitution, the influence of Persian medical practice on Ibn An-Nafis is also evident. He uses the Persian term (bersam/sersam) to explain what Hippocrates meant by phrenitis (an inflammation of the body and mind). In this section, Hippocrates discussed seasonality of disease, changes in the elements, geographic distribution and associated risk factors and Ibn An-Nafis provided examples. A significant portion ofOf the Epidemics is dedicated to describing a series of cases of illness. Ibn An-Nafis provided some biological explanations for the disease prognosis for some of those cases. In addition, Ibn An-Nafis used what Hippocrates described to compare and contrasts cases and out- breaks of diseases that he handled. For example, Ibn An-Nafis compares an outbreak of malnutrition in Damascus to that described by Hippocrates. Both scholars clearly describe the location of cases as if drawing an outbreak map as Figure 2 First page of Ibn An-Nafis bookA commentary on Hippocrates’ "Of the Epidemics". An ancient Arabic language copy of this book, dated 1215 AH did John Snow hundreds of years later. (1800−1801 CE), at the Egyptian National Library and Archives in Cairo was In addition, Ibn An-Nafis described reviewed for this manuscript. cases of anthrax, linking incidence to climate and demonstrating that when a person has minor uncovered wounds, there is a risk of infection that typically ends with death. 856 املجلة الصحية لرشق املتوسط املجلد الثالث والعرشون العدد الثاين عرش CE. Influenced by Hippocrates, these scholars, and in particular Ibn An-Nafis, moved the science of epidemiology forward.