The London School of Economics and Political Science Congress, China and the Cold War: Domestic Politics and Sino-American Rapprochement and Normalisation, 1969- 1980 Paul Coyer A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, May 2013 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 99,961 words. 2 Abstract The aim of this thesis is to examine the impact of the US Congress on the process of Sino-American rapprochement and diplomatic normalisation during the period 1969-1980. Thus far, research on Sino-American rapprochement and normalisation has focused on the role played by the Executive Branch, ignoring the role played by Congress. This study aims to place Executive Branch actions with regard to China policy in the context of domestic political trends and Congressional actions and attitudes, and locates the process of Sino-American rapprochement and normalisation in the broader context of shifting domestic attitudes toward the Cold War. This thesis demonstrates that rapprochement would not have been possible in the absence of dramatic domestic political changes in the United States, particularly important shifts of perspective within Congress toward the Cold War in general and China in particular. It traces the development of Congressional attitudes towards China, and examines the interaction between Congress and the Executive Branch with regard to China policy. This study argues that the interplay between the Executive and the Legislative Branches during a decade in which Congress was asserting its views on foreign policy is central to understanding the development of China policy during the 1970's. One of the most effective means by which Congress shaped China policy during the period of this study was by means of its ability to define the political space within which the Executive Branch was able to operate with respect to China policy. Attempts on the part of the Executive Branch to deny Congress influence were only partially successful, and although there were limits on Congress's ability to directly influence policy in the 1970's, this thesis demonstrates that Congress had a much greater impact on the development of China policy during the decade than has previously been acknowledged. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... 7 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 10 Historiography ..................................................................................................... 10 The Executive Branch, Congress, and Foreign Policy: A Brief Overview of Approaches …....................................................................................................... 19 Political Science Scholarship Relating to the Congressional Role in Foreign and Defence Policy ...................................................................................................... 29 Aim of the thesis ................................................................................................... 34 Prologue …....................................................................................................................... 37 Congress Helps Build Structure of Containment and Defines Political Space for Permissible Executive Action ............................................................................... 37 Harbingers of Change ........................................................................................... 39 1965 and 1966 House and Senate Hearings Reshape the Terms of Debate ......... 42 Chapter 1: 1969 - 1971 - A New Dynamic Signals Change ............................................. 58 1.1 A New Dynamic: Powerful Constituences for Change and a Weakened China Lobby ............................................................................................................. 59 1.2 Composition of Congress as an Indicator of Change ..................................... 66 1.2 The Challenge to Nixon From the Left .......................................................... 71 1.3 Vietnam, China and Arguments in Favour of Policy Reform ........................ 75 1.4 Conservatives and Nixon's Lobbying ............................................................. 78 1.5 Conflictual Relationship: The White House and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee …................................................................................................. 83 1.6 Ping Pong Diplomacy, Growing Support From Conservatives, and the Race for Peking …........................................................................................................ 86 1.7 End of Formal Congressional Opposition to UN Membership for China ...... 94 1.8 Kissinger's Secret Trip and the Beginning of White House Concessions ...... 94 4 1.9 Misleading Congress Regarding White House Plans to Use a 'China card' .. 97 1.10 Continuing Conflict Between the Administration and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee ................................................................................... 99 1.11 Mobilising Conservative Support …........................................................... 102 1.12 China, Taiwan, and the United Nations ….................................................. 104 1.13 Conclusion ….............................................................................................. 107 Chapter 2: 1972 – August 1974 - A Positive New Dynamic is Marred by Domestic Politics …........................................................................................................................ 110 2.1 Nixon in Peking: The “Tough Negotiator” Makes Concessions and Plans the Misleading of Congress …........................................................................... 112 2.2 Building a Web of Deceit: Nixon's Return and the Debate Over Concessions …................................................................................................................... 114 2.3 Congressional Delegations to China and Their Effect on the New Relationship …................................................................................................................... 121 2.4 Debate Over Taiwan and the Process of Normalisation .............................. 136 2.5 Congress Wrestles With the Strategic Implications of the Opening ........... 145 2.6 Conclusion …............................................................................................... 156 Chapter 3: August 1974 – 1976 - A Lack of Consensus Over Taiwan and Congress Begins a Public Debate Over Sino-American Military Relations .............................................. 157 3.1 Militant Language From Peking and An Acute Lack of Consensus in Congress …................................................................................................................... 159 3.2 The “Abramowitz Study” of 1974 and Congress's role in Pentagon Security Planning ….................................................................................................... 184 3.3 Public Debate Over Sino-American Security Cooperation Legitimises a Radical Policy Concept ................................................................................. 188 3.4 Conclusion …................................................................................................ 202 Chapter 4: 1977 – 1978 - A Divisive Normalisation and Growing Contentiousness ..... 205 4.1 Circumventing Congress ….......................................................................... 206 4.2 Shifting Strategic Perceptions and a Tilt Toward with China ….................. 235 5 4.3 Conclusion …............................................................................................... 249 Chapter 5: 1979 – 1980 - Deepening Distrust, Constitutional Struggle, and the Flowering of Sino-American Security Ties …................................................................................. 251 5.1 The TRA and Executive-Legislative Conflict Over Normalisation and Taiwan's Status ….......................................................................................... 252 5.2 Abandonment of “Evenhandedness” and the Politics of the Tilt Toward China …................................................................................................................... 272 5.3 Conclusion …................................................................................................ 296 Conclusion ….................................................................................................................. 298 Bibliography …............................................................................................................... 313 6 ABBREVIATIONS AA Administrative Assistant