City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 9-2016 Understanding the Glass Cliff Effect: Why Are Female Leaders Being Pushed Toward the Edge? Yael S. Oelbaum The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1597 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF i UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF EFFECT: WHY ARE FEMALE LEADERS BEING PUSHED TOWARD THE EDGE? by Yael Shira Oelbaum A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2016 UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF ii © 2016 YAEL SHIRA OELBAUM All Rights Reserved UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF iii Understanding the Glass Cliff Effect: Why Are Female Leaders Being Pushed Toward the Edge? by Yael Shira Oelbaum This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Psychology to satisfy the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Date Dr. Kristen Shockley Chair of Examining Committee Date Dr. Rich Bodnar Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: Dr. Kristin Sommer Dr. Erin Eatough Dr. Charles Scherbaum Dr. Loren Naidoo THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF iv Abstract UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF EFFECT: WHY ARE FEMALE LEADERS BEING PUSHED TOWARD THE EDGE? by Yael Shira Oelbaum Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Kristen Shockley The glass cliff effect describes a real-world phenomenon in which women are more likely to be appointed to precarious leadership positions in poorly performing organizations, while men are more likely to be appointed to stable leadership positions in successful organizations (Ryan & Haslam, 2005). This effect represents a subtle, yet dangerous, form of gender discrimination that may limit workplace diversity as well as women’s ability to become successful leaders. Importantly, research exploring why women are preferred for more perilous leadership positions is lacking. The main focus of this dissertation is to systematically organize previous theory and empirically examine processes underlying the glass cliff effect. Data was collected through an online study in which participants evaluated fictional leadership candidates for an open leadership position (Study 1) as well as a media study in which coders content analyzed media perceptions regarding CEO appointments using a matched sample of 84 male and female Fortune 500 CEOs (Study 2). Findings from both studies most strongly demonstrate that females are likely to be preferred over males when being promoted to a precarious position as a way for the organization to signal change. Theoretical implications of the study findings regarding gender and leadership as well as practical implications regarding organizational procedures and women’s careers are discussed. UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF v Keywords: glass cliff, gender, leadership, diversity UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF vi Acknowledgements I would not have been able to reach this important milestone without the instrumental guidance and support of my advisor, Dr. Kristen Shockley. Your willingness and availability to meet, quick responses to my many, many emails, and rapid feedback to my work was invaluable in accelerating my progress each step of the way. The constructive advice and consistent encouragement that you offered enabled me to continuously improve my work. Beyond your professional help, the emotional support and rational voice you provided throughout the process, and especially in the last few weeks before sending out my dissertation, were critical to my ability to meet my deadline in finishing this manuscript. I would also like to express my gratitude to each of my committee members, Dr. Kristin Sommer, Dr. Erin Eatough, Dr. Charles Scherbaum, Dr. Loren Naidoo, and my committee chair, Dr. Kristen Shockley. Your comments and insights were critical to the formulation and achievement of this work. Additionally, I was lucky enough to work with and take classes with many of you. I know that I would not have had the tools and skills needed to construct and carry out this dissertation if not for what I learned in classes and interactions with each of you. A special thank you to my Study 2 coders, Jenna Roman, Viviana Petreanu, David Cassell, and Patrick Dempsey. I know that coding was an arduous and time-consuming task, and I truly appreciate you putting in the effort to complete this undertaking, on top of the work you were already balancing from school and your jobs. My appreciation for my family and friends, who have played a vital role in my graduate school career, is immense. Thank you to my friends in the program, and particularly to those in my cohort. You balanced out the stress and anxiety with laughter and fun throughout the years, UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF vii and provided a strong social network in which I felt comfortable and secure. I truly enjoyed our shared experiences of professional and personal growth. I owe enormous gratitude to my parents, without whose love, praise, and reinforcement, I would not be where I am today. The upbringing and education that I received at your hands provided me with the background and confidence I needed to complete this difficult journey. I want to particularly acknowledge my mother, who opted to take on graduate school herself within the past ten years. Not only did you commiserate with me during this time, but you also enthusiastically acted as my sounding board for numerous presentations, papers, and projects. Your feedback means the world to me. Words cannot express how grateful I am to my husband and daughter, Asaf and Liana Fligelman. Asaf, you have been my rock throughout graduate school. You have gone above and beyond what I ever expected from a spouse in your understanding for my long work hours, unquestioning support, perpetual willingness to discuss school and work with me, and genuine interest in my research. I could not have asked for a more considerate and inspiring partner. Finally, my incredible daughter, Liana, has given me added incentive to make strides forward. Not only do I wish to be a worthy role model for my daughter, but I was motivated by the prospect of spending my free time with my amazing family rather than on my dissertation! UNDERSTANDING THE GLASS CLIFF viii Table of Contents I. Introduction ..............................................................................................................................1 II: Review of the Literature...........................................................................................................9 A. The Glass Cliff Effect ...................................................................................................9 B. What Drives the Glass Cliff Effect? ...........................................................................21 III. Study 1 ................... ..............................................................................................................44 A. Hypotheses .................................................................................................................44 B. Method .......................................................................................................................52 C. Analyses .....................................................................................................................63 D. Results .......................................................................................................................65 E. Discussion ...................................................................................................................76 III. Study 2 ................... ..............................................................................................................84 A. Hypotheses .................................................................................................................84 B. Method........... .............................................................................................................89 C. Results........... ..................................................................................................…….102 D. Study 2 Discussion ...................................................................................................114 IV. General Discussion ................... .........................................................................................124 V. Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................145 Footnotes................... ................... ............................................................................................147 Figures.......................................................................................................................................150 Tables................... .....................................................................................................................190 Appendices................... .............................................................................................................291 Appendix A: Job Description, Company