Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Kiwi ‘Drivers’ and ‘Lookers’ An Analysis and Examination of the Significant Contribution of New Zealand Fleet Air Arm Aircrew, of the British Pacific Fleet, to Allied Naval Operations 1944-1945 A thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand. Patrick Jeremy Lyon Thomson 2012 Abstract This thesis addresses a neglected and under-researched area of New Zealand historiography in World War II: the contribution of New Zealand Fleet Air Arm aircrew serving with the British Pacific Fleet (BPF), from December 1944 to the end of hostilities with Japan in August 1945. The operational experiences, services and sacrifices of these airmen are examined within the wider context of New Zealand’s diplomacy and strategy for the Pacific war. Three research questions are posited. First, what were New Zealand’s different responses to Japanese military aggression in the Pacific, from 1941 to 1944, particularly in association with its allies? Second, what was the genesis of the British Pacific Fleet, and what were its structures and strategic functions? Third, in what ways did New Zealand aircrew contribute to the British Pacific Fleet’s Air Arm operations from 1944 to 1945? In memory of my dearly loved eldest son, James David Lyon Thomson - 15 July 1983 to 12 July 2011. Rest In Peace Table of Contents Index of Maps, Illustrations and Photographs p.ii Introduction: Thesis Explanation and Discussion of Sources p.iii Chapter One: New Zealand Responses to the Pacific War 1941-1944 p.1 Section I: 1941 – The Pearl Harbor and Singapore Crises p.2 Section II: 1942 - An ‘Anzaxis’? p.13 Section III: A Troubled Pact 1943-1944 p.22 Chapter Two: Contested Strategies and Logistic Realities p.33 Section I: Quebec, September 1944 - A Decision Made p.35 Section II: The Lethbridge Mission p.44 Section III: The Genesis of the British Pacific Fleet 1944-45 p.54 Chapter Three: ‘Drivers’ and ‘Lookers’ p.62 Section I: New Zealand Naval Airmen p.64 Section II: Aircraft p.71 Section III: British Pacific Fleet Strategies – Preparatory Operations p.76 Chapter Four: British Pacific Fleet - Main Operations p.97 Section I: Operation ‘Iceberg’ - The Sakishima Gunto and Formosa p.98 Section II: Over the Japanese Home Islands p.115 Section III: Courage, Daredevils and POWs p.125 Conclusion p.134 Bibliography p.141 Glossary p.151 Appendix I: Table of Related Allied WWII Conferences p.154 Appendix II: Japanese Aircraft - ‘Bogeys’ p.155 Appendix III: New Zealand Fleet Air Arm Personnel of the British Pacific Fleet, December 1944 to August 1945 p.156 Appendix IV: Table of the British Pacific Fleet’s Air Arm Operations, December 1944 to August 1945 p.162 i Maps Far Eastern Operations p.ix ‘Culverin’ and ‘Sceptre’ p.37 The ‘Middle and Modified Middle Strategies’ p.41 The Western Pacific and Japan p.77 The Indian Ocean p.79 Operation ‘Robson’ p.82 Operation ‘Lentil’ p.86 Operation ‘Meridian I’ p.92 Operation ‘Iceberg’ p.99 Final Operations against Japan – July and August 1945 p.118 Illustrations and Photographs The Pacific War Council, Washington DC, 12 October 1942 p.20 Chiang Kai-shek, Roosevelt and Churchill, Cairo, 25 November 1943 p.27 The Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ Conference, London, 1 May 1944 p.32 The British Chiefs of Staff, 7 May 1945 p.43 The Lethbridge Military Mission to New Zealand, 20 October 1943 p.49 Staff of the British Pacific Fleet, Melbourne, 13 December 1944 p.53 Cover illustration 894 (Seafire) Squadron Line Book p.54 Illustration 894 (Seafire) Squadron Line Book p.62 New Zealand FAA trainees, UK, 1940-41 p.64 Sub. Lieutenant McLennan RNZNVR: 1844 Squadron Line Book p.80 Corsair sketch: 1834 Squadron Line Book p.83 1834 Squadron - Corsairs on Victorious p.89 Clearing Formidable’s deck p.110 An Avenger of 857 Squadron lands on one ‘leg’ p.114 Firefly sketch: ‘Nightmare for Japan’, 1770 Squadron Official Diary p.121 ii Introduction: Thesis Explanation and Discussion of Sources During late 1945 Allied Prisoner of War Investigation teams began enquiries in Pacific and South East Asian territories previously occupied by Japanese forces. The investigators’ focus was upon providing information of relief or closure to the relatives of Allied servicemen officially posted as ‘missing’ in the theatre, as well as bringing alleged war criminals to trial. Two New Zealand Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm pilots, Evan Baxter and John Haberfield, had been ‘… reported missing th since 24 January 1945 … their aircraft [having] failed to return to HMS 1 Illustrious from an attack on [an oil refinery] at Palembang, Southern Sumatra’. Information regarding the fate of the airmen was received from the Japanese military judicial authorities during enquiries made by the War Crimes Co- ordination Section, in Singapore, in late 1945.2 These airmen were representative of a unique cohort of New Zealand World War II servicemen, whose history is yet to be fully researched. This thesis addresses a neglected and under-researched area of New Zealand historiography in World War II: the contribution of New Zealand Fleet Air Arm aircrew serving with the British Pacific Fleet (BPF), from December 1944, to the end of hostilities with Japan in August 1945. The operational experiences, services and sacrifices of these airmen are examined within the wider context of New Zealand’s diplomacy and strategy for the Pacific war. That a relatively small number of New Zealanders participated, on a global scale, does not diminish the historical significance of their contribution to the war against Japan. Three research questions are posited. First, what were New Zealand’s different responses to Japanese military aggression in the Pacific, from 1941 to 1944, particularly in association with its allies? This thesis begins by investigating the strategic situation, in 1941, of New Zealand in the Pacific, the objective being to understand the intersecting strands and overlapping spheres of New Zealand’s 1 Admiralty to N.Z.N.B. 1287 OUT, 090518A/February, 9/2/45. ‘Collated documents relating to the capture of Lts. Baxter and Haberfield and their subsequent execution by the Japanese’, donated by D. Allison. RNZN Museum, Devonport, Auckland, New Zealand. FZP 0004/EZB 0018. 2 New Zealand Naval Secretary to Mrs. M. Baxter, 4 February 1946, ‘Collated documents ….’ iii diplomatic, political and military decision-making. Second, what was the genesis of the British Pacific Fleet, and what were its structures and strategic functions? Third, in what ways did New Zealand aircrew contribute to the British Pacific Fleet’s Air Arm operations from 1944 to 1945? There are four chapters: Chapter One analyses New Zealand‘s limited options and diplomatic frustrations in dealing with its major allies gripped, as it was, by fear of isolation and the threat of invasion by Japanese forces. Explanation of the strategic gestation, the composition and movement of the BPF, and the reasons why Sydney was chosen as its base, are outlined in Chapter Two. Chapter Three describes the airmen, aircraft and strategic purpose of the BPF and explains its activities from Ceylon (Sri Lanka), in late 1944 and early 1945, in preparation for the Fleet’s main operations in the Pacific, later in 1945. Chapter Four is told from the New Zealand airmen’s vantage point: this is marked by a shift in the register and tone of prose, to represent authentic and personal perspectives. Reflections upon the individual circumstances of particular ‘Kiwi’ pilots conclude this chapter. To borrow Prime Minister, Peter Fraser’s words on the matter of New Zealand and the Pacific war, the naval airmen ‘… participated to the fullest possible extent’.3 However, telling the ‘stories’ of young men at war, as absorbing as they may be, has limited value unless broader historical circumstances are canvassed to provide context. Peter Fraser regularly voiced his intention, not always convincingly, for New Zealand to take the fight to Japan; he was thwarted, in part, by the logistics of the Dominion’s geographical isolation and political marginalisation. Yet, pragmatism and the demographics of New Zealand’s small population, alone, could not be held responsible for the military decisions the government made: New Zealand’s largest military effort was deliberately maintained in Europe, not against Japan. It was not by design, but it is nevertheless the fact that New Zealanders of the Fleet Air Arm flew and fought over Japan in 1945, and not servicemen clad in Air Force blue or khaki. 3 Peter Fraser. ‘Conduct of the War Against Japan’, Note by the Joint Secretaries, Meeting of Prime Ministers, P.M.M. (44) 10, 16 May 1944, p.7. CAN A5954 CS 657/4. iv Sources The research conducted for this thesis has had, in order, significant input from Australian, New Zealand and British primary source material. A thorough survey and reading of official histories, books of naval interest and scholarly works was completed in preparation for writing and was continued for subsequent review and reference purposes. As the BPF task force was Sydney-based, an Australasian perspective regarding the genesis of the task force and its operational activities has been adopted. Personal visits for research were made in 2010 to archive repositories in New Zealand and Australia and, in 2011, to the UK. The National Archive of Australia and the Australian War Memorial in Canberra provided a comprehensive body of inter-dominion communication at prime-ministerial level regarding Australian attitudes to the war against Japan, as well as official positions on New Zealand’s war-time decision-making and policy.