4 Towards the Definition of a Muslim in an Islamic State: The Case of the Ahmadiyya in Pakistan Charles H. Kennedy The issue of the status of the Ahmadiyya in Pakistan has been much publicized in recent years.-z'This is due in large measure to the policies which the government of Pakistan applied to the Ahmadi community - first in 1974 when the Ahmadis were declared a "non- Muslim minority," and again in 1984, when further legal restrictions were placed upon the community. Such actions by Pakistan's govern- ment have been decried in the western press as constituting a denial of religious freedom, and international organizations have voiced numerous concerns over human rights violations implicit in the government's policies. This paper attempts to present a political analysis of the Ahmadi issue in Pakistan. This isa difficult task; complicated by the chroni- cally partisan nature of the issue and its "political sensitivity" in Pakistan. The paper is divided into four parts. The first traces the philosophical foundations of the Ahmadiyya through a brief account of the career of Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement. The second details the development of the Ahmadi philosophy and its interaction with Indian nationalist politics. The third section traces the role of the Ahmadiyya in Pakistani politics, and the final section provides some thoughts on the "policy logic" of Pakistan's decision-makers relevant to the Ahmadi issue. Life and Teachings of Ghulam Ahmad Very little concerning the lifetime of Ghulam Ahmad is certain. It is generally acknowledged that he was born in 1835, and it is indis- 72 Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia wards the Definition of a Muslim in an Islamic State 73 putable that he was born in Qadian,a village located in present-day Methodology: Jihad of the Word Indian Punjab.' Ahmadi historians stress the nobility of Ghulam's ancestors. They claim that he was a direct descendant of Haji Barlas, fundamental tenet of the Ahmadiyya (and Islam) is the concept of the uncle of Arnir Timur; and that one of Ghulam's ancestors, Hadi Jihad Gust war). As interpreted by Ghulam Ahmad, the propagation Beg, came to India from Samarkhand with Babar, the first Mughal ,f Islam is a duty of every Muslim but such propagation should emperor of India.' Regardless of the authenticity of such claims, rely be expressed violently. Rather, propagation should occur in Ghulam's paternal grandfather was Mirza 'Ata Muhammad. 'Ata the realm of reasoned discourse; and its champions not warriors but Muhammad was a wealthy jagir-holding landlord, his holdings in- killed debaters. cluding the area of present-day Qadian and its environs. In 1800, he lost most of his land to invading Sikhs, and in 1802, he was forced to There is not the least truth in the assertion that it is time for abandon his ancestral homestead in Oadian.' Mirza Ghulam Mur- .resorting to the sword and gun for spreading the true religion taza, Ghulam's father, witnessed the demise of his family's fortune, and righteousness. The sword, far from revealing the beauties and perhaps as a consequence, became obsessed with the concern to and excellences of truth, makes them dubious and throws regain title to the lost lands. Ghulam Murtaza's efforts were partially them into the background. Those who hold such views are not successful - in 1835 he managed to have title to five villages the friends of Islam but its deadly. foes. They have low mo- restored," tives, mean natures, poor spirits, narrow minds, dull brains, Accounts of the early years of Ghulam Ahmad's life are fraught and short sight.... The religion that can easily establish its with unresolved issues. Ahmadi historians stress the intelligence and truth and superiority by sound intellectual arguments, piety of the young Ghulam. Non-Ahmadi historians stress the latter's heavenly Signs or other reliable testimony, does not need the supposed effeminacy and chronicle the grotesque consequences of sword to threaten men and force a confession of its truth his alleged sickly constitution.' In any case, Ghulam's first instruction from them. Religion is worth the name only as long as it is in was handled by private tutors. He was a reasonably good student in consonance with reason. If it fails to satisfy that requisite; if it Islamic exegesis, and during these years he learned Arabic. Between has to ~ake up for its discomfiture in argument by handling 1858 and 1864 (depending upon source), and at the prompting of his the sword, it needs no other argument for its falsification. The father, Ghulam entered the Law Court at Sialkot as a clerk. But sword it wields cuts its own throat before reaching others." Ghulam was not destined to become a lawyer. He failed his ex- aminations, and according to Ahmadi historians, he also failed to Important is Ghulam Ahmad's application of this doctrine to the 6 become fluent in English. In 1868, Ghulam returned to Qadian to British raj. Ghulam argued that any declaration of forceful jihad continue his Islamic studies and to help with the management of his against the British was unwarranted. Wars in Islam, he argued, can family'Sestate. be classed into three categories: (1) defensive wars - "war by way of The period from 1876 to 1877 marks a turning point in the career self-protection"; (2) punitive wars - "blood for blood"; and (3) of Ghulam. In 1876 his father died; in 1877, Ghulam Qadir, freedom struggles - "with a view to break the power of those who Ghulam's older brother, assumed full responsibilities for the kill those who accept Islam." Islam accords religious justification management of the family's estate, freeing Ghulam to continue his only for wars of the third type. By this interpretation war against religious studies. Moreover, in 1877, Ghulam had his first prophetic British rule could not be justified. Patently, the intention of the vision. In this vision Ghulam foresaw the death of his father and was British was to politically dominate India, not to destroy nor forcibly consoled by the promise of his future destiny as a prophet.' During convert its Muslim inhabitants." the next twenty years the major tenets of the Ahmadiyya were for- Nevertheless, Ghulam Ahmad never abandoned his notion of mulated. peaceful jihad. In fact, the history of the Ahmadis can be described as a chronicle of contentious disputes with various groups that have 74 Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia awards the Definition of a Muslim in an Islamic State 75 taken issue with Ahmadi doctrine. Typically, Ahmadis have entered as the God Almighty, shall be thrown into Hell within fifteen these disputes with the same religious intensity that characterizes the months from today unless he turns to the truth. And the one forceful application of jihad. In this sense the peaceful jihad of the who follows the right path and believes in One True God, shall word can be viewed as the methodological foundation of the Ahmadi be honoured.':" movement; it is impossible to separate the content of Ahmadi philosophy from its manner of propagation. Soon, this "prophecy" became the talk of the Punjab. Dr. Martin One major technique of jihad of the word were debates or 'larke stated that it was impossible to fully comprehend the effect "prayer duels." An example is provided by describing a famous that the prophecy had on the minds of the public: "It is a plain, clear Christian-Ahmadi debate termed by one Ahmadi historian as the issue; it is no longer a war of words, or a drawing of distinctions - a ~'Jihad of 1893.,,11In. 1892, t~e Christian mission at Jandilya (located sign from heaven is to be vouchsafed.?" To make a long story short, ill present-day Indian Punjab), headed by Dr. Martin Clarke, the expiration of the fifteen-month period found Dr. A'thim in good "challenged" the Muslims of the area to a debate on the truth of their health. This fact occasioned great excitement within the Christian respective religions. The Jandilya Muslims called upon Ghulam Ah- community. But both sides claimed that they had been vindicated by mad to represent their position in the debate." The Christians were God - Christians because A'thim lived; Ahmadis because the represented by Dr. Abdullah A'thim. The rules governing the debate prophecy had caused A'thim to turn from his evil ways. were that: The instant effect of this prophecy upon Dr. Abdullah A'thim 1. The venue of the debate was to be Amritsar, at the h~me of Dr. the leader of the Christians, was that his face turned pale and Clarke. he began to tremble. Placing his hands upon his ears he 2. One hundred tickets were issued to Christian and Muslim publicly declared that he was never insolent to the Prophet of visitors (fifty to each side). Arabia and that he did not use the word "anti-Christ" for 3. The debate was to be held for five hours a day for two weeks." hiun. 18 During the course of the debate Ghulam Ahmad explained his claim The adoption of a methodology that calls for the propagation of t~at "ev~ry religion should prove its truth with living signs" and ques- faith by a war of words may easily succumb to the danger of escala- tioned his opponent about the divinity of Jesus." In response A'thim tion into less non-violent forms. Indeed, Ghulam Ahmad's challen~ed:. (1) the Islamic conception of God's mercy; (2) divine methodological style often left him on the razor's edge of physical determination as believed by Muslims; (3) the use of force for the violence with his opponents.