Exploring Historical Anthropology Jacques Le Goff and Aaron J. Gurevich Leonore Scholze-Irrlit z Scholze-Irrlitz, Leonore 1994 : Exploring Historical Anthropology. Jacques Le Goff and Aaron J. Gurevich . - Ethnologia Europaea 24: 119-132. The different styles of research of two historians - Jacques Le Goff and Aaron J . Gurevich - are analysed and compared. Both understand anthropology as th e basis of a new all-encompassing attempt at synthesising historical studies, and produce ind ependent results by taking into consideration lit erary-hermeneut­ ical, ethnological and structuralistic methods, thus forming two different co­ existing "styles of relationship" of medieval mentality. Le Goff and Gurevich contribute to historical anthropology and to a publicly effective renewal of the science of history through explanatory, deterministic and contemporary exam­ ination. An interview with A. J. Gurevich on the relationship between social history and the history of mentality is published as an append ix. Dr. phil. Leonore Scholze-Irrlitz, Eichbergstr. 23, D-12589 Berlin-Wilhelmsha­ gen. This paper deals with the styles of research and space (Le Goff 1970: 215 and 1977: 25, Le and the methods of Jacques Le Goff and Aaron Goff & Chartier 1990: 13). Significant for the J. Gurevich - two historians from very differ­ "Annales" school and also for Le Goff are fur­ ent scientific traditions. The contribution both ther the comparative methods of historical in­ of these medieval specialists have made to his­ terpretation and the concept of "histoire to­ torical anthropology reveals new dimensions tale" (Le Goff 1983 : XI, Honegger 1977: 13-14, in the science of history. Burke 1991: 29). The "Annales" went through three stages of development, the last of which is characterized by J. Le Goff, E. Le Roy Ladu­ J. Le Goff and the new rie and M. Ferro's takeover of the journal and historiography in France by a turn to the examination of fundamental The contemporary French science of history human feelings and modes of expression and was significantly influenced by the journal to the complexes of childhood, death, fear etc ., "Annales", founded 1929 by M. Bloch and L. linked to an expansion of the concept of source. Febvre and their associates. Starting with a Le Goff also influenced the "third stage of de­ criticism of the working and cognitive prac­ velopment" by assuming Presidency of the tices of positivism and the "history of events", "Sixieme section" of the "Ecole Pratique des an interdisciplinary base was established Hautes Etudes" in 1972, and by the subse­ which worked in close cooperation with a new quent founding of the "Ecole des Hautes understanding of sources and geared itself to Etudes en Sciences Sociales" in 1975 (Le Goff socio-psychological questioning. Le Goff who 1989b: 162). 1 (like F. Braudel, G. Duby or E. Le Roy Ladurie A fundamental element of Le Gaffs working perhaps) fits into this tradition, does not carry methods is his comprehensive idea of sources, out regional studies, but following M. Lom­ which is in a state of constant development bard's study of time and space in Islam, deals and encompasses everything created by man. with the interpretation of the world of con­ Le Goff also uses various methods from other sciousness and feelings in terms of real time disciplines such as comparative literature and 8* 119 ethnology in order to decipher his sources. His structures are the precondition for every caus­ works reveal that sources have three main al explanation. Using structuring as a method, characteristics: 1. most sources are fragmented he succeeds in linking and ordering the facts of and always require mutual comparison; 2. complex material. Two stages of structural some sources appear to be disguised reality, analysis can be distinguished in Le Goffs which is why questions are often asked about works: first of all - space-time studies and the relationship between concept and reality; later, structural analyses of medieval literary 3. for the early Middle Ages the sources are texts. Key concepts used to structure the mate­ almost invariably indirect and can only be de­ rial are culture, ideology, imagination, values, ciphered by iconographical, linguistic and nat­ popular and learned culture. In Le Goff the ural scientific methods. idea of structure is used in the methodological In Le Goffs works the analysis of social sense as "categorical conception". Unlike M. place and time is at the centre of his observa­ Aymard for example, who describes the func­ tions of space and time which are the tradi­ tion of structure and conjuncture primarily as tional categories of historical cognition, which a means of classification, Le Goff uses struc­ is in accordance with French tradition cf. M. tured questioning as a means of explanation. Halbwachs. This is revealed most concisely in In medieval literature, for example, Le Goff his examination of the difference between the asks if, and to what extent, the images and "time of the Church" and the "time of the symbols are a record of historical reality (Le trader" (Le Goff 1984: 13 and 1990: 87, Halb­ Goff 1990: 392 and 221). Following Levi­ wachs 1985: 101). Just as in his works on Pur­ Strauss very closely he tries to analyse the plot gatory- which I will deal with in greater detail of certain novels by looking at the codes for below - a great radical change in medieval food and clothes. Structural points of view of­ society is brought into the centre of play i.e. fer new cognitive possibilities for Le Goff also man's changing mastery of the factor of time, a in the framework of methodical considera­ change which could be seen as heralding a new tions, as human thought and worldview are era. Le Goff, whose mediev al period stretches explained as constituent parts of social rela­ from the third to the nineteenth century, ex­ tionships on different levels in literary texts. amines how, over long periods of time, avail­ This idea of a network of relations appears in able collective images and ideas fall into cer­ hermeneutical and structural interpretations tain space-time dependencies and how socie­ as opposed to a linear determinant of basis and ty's ideas can be decisively influenced. His superstructure and also contrary to spectac­ analyses show how as part of rationality, cal­ ular-metaphorical interpretations . In some of culating thought (and associated behaviour) Le Goffs chosen examples, however, the dan­ can free itself from magical thought. Le Goff ger remains of not being able to piece together outlines two different systems of logic which adequately the individual pieces after a text belong to different lifestyles and perspectives, has been broken down. The completion of a and on which different social organisation is structural analysis through hermeneutical based. analysis leads to a better understanding of the In his analyses, Le Goff also uses the meth­ whole and it is here, as often happens with Le ods of structure which, thanks to F. Braudel, Goff, that his examples provide a stimulus for have become synonymous with the French further research. structural history, and which began to develop In general Le Goff uses the idea of mentality in the works of sociologists, economic histori­ and ties it in to his research. Starting with E. ans, ethnologists and anthropologists in the Durkheim, twentieth century usage of the con­ 1920s . Thus influenced, Le Goff was stimu­ cept of mentality in France began with L. lated greatly by G. Dumezil's studies of the Levy-Bruhl and M. Mauss who introduced the structural triad in Inda-Germanic thought, term "collective ideas" in association with it and by C. Levi-Strauss' myth analysis (Le Goff (Durkheim 1967: 46, Levy-Bruhl 1921: 5, 1989b: 158, Dumezil 1989) . He holds that Mauss 1989, vol. II: 158). In view of the idea of 120 mentality which has become ynonymous with more recenL Ftench hi toriography and The main concepts of A. J. Gurevich whose blurredne s i often criticised in Ger­ Gurevich began his historical investigations many, Le Goff asks if this problematic term with studies on the social structure of Scandi­ should be developed or allowed to disappear navia and England from the ninth to the elev­ (Oexle 1981: 88, Le Goff 1989a : 31). He under­ enth century whereby he became aware of the stands the ''hi ·tory of mentality" as the history significance of socio-psychological questioning. of "the collective psychology of societies". To During the Soviet Union's "Thaw" of the sec­ research this, he concentrates on mentalities ond half of the 1950s, the possibility arose of delimited in space and time, and by group and discussing the methodology of the social sci­ class. In so doing, he goes beyond P. Aries and ences. Gurevich thus realised that the idea of G. Bouthoul, who regarded mentality as a fea­ social formation was an unsuitable means for ture that might describe the society of an en­ explaining history and found support among tire era (Le Goff 1988: 219 and 1989a: 21, 27- several other historians in the Soviet Union. 29). Gurevich to this day still has much in common With specific examples such as the devel­ with the working methods of linguists and opment of the sociologica l triad of priest , war­ semiotics such as Yu. Lotman who raised the riors and peasants , and the "origin of Purga­ issue of the connection between the modes of tory' ', Le TOff examines vocabulary, yntax, literature in history, and determinants ofliter­ figures of speech, concepts of pace and tim e, ary work structure. Gurevich also tries to use gestures and symbols. Le Goff opened up new or develop structural methods of analysis and possibilities for historical analysis with his de­ description when researching social and cul­ piction of the origin of Purgatory.