CONGOLESE REFUGEE STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION: EQUITY AND OPPORTUNITY by Refik Sadiković A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Curriculum and Instruction Boise State University May 2018 © 2018 Refik Sadiković ALL RIGHTS RESERVED BOISE STATE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE COLLEGE DEFENSE COMMITTEE AND FINAL READING APPROVALS of the dissertation submitted by Refik Sadiković Dissertation Title: Congolese Refugee Students in Higher Education: Equity and Opportunity Date of Final Oral Examination: 05 April 2018 The following individuals read and discussed the dissertation submitted by student Refik Sadiković, and they evaluated his presentation and response to questions during the final oral examination. They found that the student passed the final oral examination. Stanley Steiner, Ph.D. Co-Chair, Supervisory Committee Diane Boothe, D.P.A. Co-Chair, Supervisory Committee Petros Panaou, Ph.D. Member, Supervisory Committee The final reading approval of the dissertation was granted by Stanley Steiner, Ph.D., Co- Chair of the Supervisory Committee and Diane Boothe D.P.A., Co-Chair of the Supervisory Committee. The Dissertation was approved by the Graduate College. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to thank my doctoral committee, Dr. Stan Steiner, Dr. Diane Boothe, and Dr. Petros Panaou for their encouragement, guidance, and support. I am deeply thankful for the encouragement and guidance Dr. Stan Steiner offered in shaping my study, helping me amplify the voice of the Congolese refugee students. Thank you for being always available for me. I very much appreciate the amount of encouragement and support provided by Dr. Diane Boothe and Dr. Petros Panaou. Your encouragement meant a lot to me! My gratitude and respect go to my friend Allie Qiu from Boise State Writing Center for her excellent writing suggestions and editing support. Thank you for being there for me. I want to thank my wife, Belma Sadiković, for her endless encouragement inspiration and support with my dissertation. Thank you for being there at all times to answer my questions. I also want to thank my brothers and sisters across the world who believed in me and inspired me to pursue my educational dream. I send thanks to people in my community and Micron Technology management in Boise Idaho, who encouraged me to pursue higher education. Also, I would like to thank the Congolese refugee students for their time and for iv sharing their incredible life stories. I am proud of your courage and determination to overcome all barriers and to succeed in higher education. This study would not be possible without all of you. v ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to explore Congolese refugee students’ experiences in higher education in the United States. In order to understand the challenges Congolese students face in higher education, this study used narrative inquiry methodology to investigate Congolese students’ lived experiences that affected their educational endeavors before and after resettlement to the United States. The study examined personal stories of 10 Congolese students in the Pacific Northwest using semi-structured in-depth interviews, one-on-one follow-up interviews, field notes and two focus group interviews. Using narrative analysis five reoccurring themes were identified and discussed in the findings. The study findings indicate that Congolese students experienced many obstacles and inequitable treatment in higher education after resettlement to the United States. These challenges evolved from a combination of traumatic experiences caused by wars, the lack of opportunities and equitable resources in higher education, unpreparedness of faculty and staff to work with students across cultures, and lack of cultural sensitivity among educators and peers. The study provides recommendations for faculty, staff, and policymakers to provide opportunities and equitable education for all students in higher education in the United States. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................2 Background of the Study .........................................................................................3 Importance of Education ..............................................................................5 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................7 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................7 Research Question .......................................................................................7 Significance of the Study .............................................................................8 Limitations of the Study...............................................................................8 Definition of Terms....................................................................................10 The Researcher’s Story ..........................................................................................12 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................17 The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Demographics, Education and a Short History....................................................................................................................17 The Kongo Rulers ......................................................................................18 Zaire - The Democratic Republic of the Congo .........................................19 Ongoing Crises in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo). ........22 Colonial and Post-Colonial Education in the Congo .................................28 The Plight of Refugees...........................................................................................32 vii Refugee Camps ..........................................................................................33 Refugees and Forced Migration .............................................................................35 The Refugee Migration Path ......................................................................36 From Displacement to Third Country Resettlement ..................................39 Refugees in Higher Education ...............................................................................47 Importance of Higher Education. ...............................................................50 Refugee Students: Aspirations, Desires, and Pressures Related to Academic Prosper ......................................................................................51 Refugee Students’ Challenges in Higher Education: Improving Access and Support .......................................................................................................52 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................57 Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................57 Problem Statement Restated ..................................................................................68 Research Question Restated ...................................................................................69 Research Methodology ..........................................................................................69 Narrative Inquiry ....................................................................................................70 Participants .............................................................................................................74 Data Collection Methods .......................................................................................76 Semi-Structured Interviews. ......................................................................77 Focus Groups—Conversational Meetings .................................................79 Data Analysis .........................................................................................................80 Research Quality Measures ....................................................................................83 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS .................................................................................................89 Introduction ............................................................................................................89 viii The Short Outline of Participants ..........................................................................90 From Civilians to Refugees ...................................................................................90 Participants’ Themes through Narratives—Overview ...........................................96 Escape, Surviving in Camp(s), Exile, and Coping with Trauma ...........................98 Gap in Education—Interrupted or Limited Education During the Exile and Prolonged Stay in Camps .....................................................................................103 Colliding Cultures—Acculturation, Cultural Differences, Feeling Discriminated Against, and Coping with Trauma after Resettlement .........................................106 Higher Education as Opportunity: Aspiration and Support .................................111 Issues in Higher Education—Otherness,