The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School COMPARING TWO GENERATIONS OF CHINESE INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS STUDYING IN THE UNITED STATES A Dissertation in Lifelong Learning and Adult Education and Comparative and International Education by Xiaoqiao Zhang © 2020 Xiaoqiao Zhang Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2020 ii The dissertation of Xiaoqiao Zhang was reviewed and approved by the following: Adnan Qayyum Assistant Professor of Education Dissertation Co-Adviser Co-Chair of Committee Craig Campbell Assistant Professor of Education Dissertation Co-Adviser Co-Chair of Committee Wei-Fan Chen Associate Professor of Information Sciences and Technology Roger Shouse Associate Professor of Education Emeritus Susan Land Director of Graduate Studies Department of Learning and Performance Systems iii ABSTRACT This study is an exploratory multiple case study that compares two different generations of Chinese international students in the United States and describes their experiences. This research investigates three questions: How do acculturation stresses differ between the two generations of Chinese international students? How do individuals create their social networks? How do individuals learn from their social networks to cope with these acculturation stresses? The eight participants in this study represent two generations of Chinese international students. Four of the participants were born in the 1950s, 五零后, and studied in the United States after the China economic reform policy was implemented in 1978. The other four participants were born in the 1990s, 九零后, and studied in the United States during the peak period of globalization and international education in China. Situated learning is used to analyze and understand the path from the stressors students encounter to the final coping strategies the students deploy. The results suggest that the challenges facing participants from the two generations did not generally differ much despite differences in historical contexts, and the locations and types of universities at which the participants studied. All of the participants had difficulties with language, the U.S. education system, social support, and mental health. However, the patterns and the experiences of the stressors differed. The participants from the 1950s generation found that the language and education differences mostly emerged in academic settings. In contrast, the participants from the 1990s generation found that language challenges mainly arose during social interaction and everyday life. One surprising finding is that despite current digital technologies and tools, both generations found physical social support to be important. Likewise, for both generations the importance of communities working together was clear. Finally, for all the international students interviewed in this study, important learning happened not only in the classroom and among peers. In fact, much learning happened outside of the classroom and through various people and organizations. The communities of practice that the students created during their journeys impacted their overall growth in significant ways, both professionally and personally. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Coming to the Study .................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 2 Country of Origin: China ....................................................................................................................... 5 Historical Background ........................................................................................................................... 6 Pre-People’s Republic of China ............................................................................................................................ 6 Post-People’s Republic of China .......................................................................................................................... 8 Coming to the Question ........................................................................................................................ 10 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................................. 14 Adult Education .................................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 18 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 19 Common Acculturation Stressors ....................................................................................................... 20 Language ............................................................................................................................................................. 21 Educational Stressors .......................................................................................................................................... 22 Sociocultural Stressors ........................................................................................................................................ 24 Discrimination .................................................................................................................................................... 25 Practical Stressors ............................................................................................................................................... 26 Popular Theories ................................................................................................................................... 27 Berry’s Acculturation Theory ............................................................................................................................. 28 Hofstede’s Cultural Theory ................................................................................................................................ 28 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory .............................................................................................. 29 Lave and Wenger’s Situated Learning ............................................................................................................... 30 Digital Technology’s Impact on Students’ Lives ............................................................................... 32 Social Support and Social Network Sites ............................................................................................ 33 Social Support ..................................................................................................................................................... 33 Social Network Sites (SNSs) .............................................................................................................................. 35 Summary and Development of Questions .......................................................................................... 38 Chapter 3: Methodology .............................................................................................................. 39 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 41 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................... 43 Exploratory Multiple Case Study ........................................................................................................ 44 Researcher’s Proposition .................................................................................................................................... 45 Pilot Studies ........................................................................................................................................... 46 Delimitations and Limitations ............................................................................................................. 49 Population ........................................................................................................................................................... 49 Two Generations ................................................................................................................................................. 50 v Data Collection Procedure ................................................................................................................... 51 Recruitment ......................................................................................................................................................... 52 Meetings and Travel Arrangements ...................................................................................................................