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Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. 35 mm slides or 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Accessing the World's Information since 1938 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA Order Number 8900001 Fission, maintenance and interaction in an Anishinabe community on Keweenaw Bay, Michigan, 1832-1881 Adams, Walter Randolph, Ph.D. Michigan State University, 1988 Copyright ©1988 by Adams, Walter Randolph. All rights reserved. UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V . 1. Glossy photographs or pages . 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background ____ 4. 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Other________________________________________________________________ UMI FISSION, MAINTENANCE AND INTERACTION IN AN ANISHINABE COMMUNITY ON KEWEENAW BAY, MICHIGAN, 1832-1881 By Walter Randolph Adams A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Anthropology 1988 ABSTRACT FISSION, MAINTENANCE AND INTERACTION IN AN ANISHINABE COMMUNITY ON KEWEENAW BAY, MICHIGAN, 1832-1881 By Walter Randolph Adams The Anishinabe (Ojlbway) Community on the Keweenaw Bay fissio n ed in 1832 when a Methodist missionary entered the community to evangelize them. The schismatic faction established their own community three miles west of the Methodist mission on the opposite side of the bay. The a rriv a l of a C atholic m issionary to the western community cemented the existence of the two communities on the Keweenaw Bay in spite of external pressures to reunite them. The two have developed distinctive economic and social patterns. Today, one hundred forty four years later, the two communities remain as virtually autonomous communities even though they share a single tribal council. This work examines the social history of the two communities from 1832 to 1881. It attempts to understand why the community fissioned in the manner it did and how the two daughter communities have remained distinct entities when external pressures were exerted to integrate them. Four of the primary theoretical frameworks used by anthropologists to understand community dynamics—e th n ic ity , factionalism, macro-micro analysis, and state penetration—alone and in any combination— were unable to adequately resolve the questions posed. I argue that these models focus either on internal dynamics Valter Randolph Adams (ethnicity and factionalism) or external pressures exerted upon a community (macro-micro analysis and state penetration). To fully understand the fission and subsequent evolution of the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community, I argue i t is necessary to consider both in te rn a l forces and external pressures and how they interacted. Equally, it is necessary to understand that groups of individuals, comprising distinct segments of the population, responded to these forces and pressures differently. Their responses to these conditions resulted in the fission of a single community and the subsequent dual-community s tru c tu re . Copyright by WALTER RANDOLPH ADAMS 1988 DEDICATED TO: Richard N. and Betty H. Adams Joseph L. Chartkoff and my Guidance Committee Walter and Marley Hannstein, Randolph and Helen Adams Tani Marilena and Gina Constance Adams Marilyn Baade without whom this could not have happened v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many individuals and institutions facilitated the research for this project. They are, however, in no manner responsible for the final product. I accept completely the responsibility for whatever errors are contained herein. My parents, Richard N. and Betty H. Adams, and my wife, Marilyn Baade, provided much encouragement and other support throughout the experience. Dr. Joseph Chartkoff, the chair of my doctoral committee gave many hours of his time to discuss various dimensions of the research p ro je ct with me. Dr. George L. C ornell, a committee member, deserves special recognition for introducing me to the Keweenaw Bay Community. The other members of my doctoral committee, Dr. David Dwyer, Dr. Joseph Spielberg Benitez, and Dr. Scott Whiteford also made invaluable contributions to this dissertation. I also extend my appreciation to Dr. William N. Fenton who sparked my interest in the ethnohistory of Native Americans. Dr. Garrick Bailey, Dr. Edmund J. Danziger, Dr. Philip Handrick, Dr. Joseph Lopreato, Dr. David Rindos, and Dr. Jerry Voss all provided numerous Insights that helped mold the final product, even though many of their contributions are not expressed. I also extend my gratitude to the many others who were helpful at various stages of the project and only re g re t th a t they are too numerous to name. The research was carried out in a number of archives and vi libraries. Chief among them are the Michigan Public Library; the Michigan Historical Commission; the Michigan State University Library— especially the Microforms and Special Collections divisions—; the Clarke Historical Collection at Central Michigan University; the Archives of the Detroit Annual Conference of the United Methodist Church at Adrian; the Bureau of Indian Affairs at Sault Ste. Marie; the Catholic Diocese of Detroit and the Burton Collection of the Detroit Public Library. These Institutions and their staff extended their resources and answered my numerous questions. I also express my appreciation to the foundations who contributed funds for this research project. Sigma Xi provided two grants-in-aid (1985, 1986). The W.B. and Candace Thoman Foundation at Michigan State University contributed funds as well as the initial impetus to study the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community. Finally, deep gratitude is extended to the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community and to its Tribal Council for inviting me to study their community. Specific recognition is given to Mr. Ted Holappa, Mr. Frank Shelafoe, and Ms. Myrtle Tolonen, members of that community. To these individuals I say Migwetch. v ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES - v i i i LIST OF FIGURES ix I INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introductory Remarks I 1.2 The Problem and I ts Significance 7 1.3 The Concept of Community 10 1.4 Ways of Studying Communities 12 1.4.1 Ethnicity 12 1.4.2 Factionalism 15 1.4.2.1 Networks Analysis 18 1.4.2.2 Transaction Analysis 18 1.4.2.3 Class Structure 19 1.4.2.4 Relevance of Factionalism to the Keweenaw Bay 21 1.4.3 Macro-Micro Analysis and State Penetration 22 1.4.4 Limitations to These Approaches 24 1.5 Approach Taken In This Study 27 II EXTERNAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE KEWEENAW BAY COMMUNITY 35 2.1 Introductory Remarks 35 2.2 Traditional Anishinabe Culture 36 2.3 The French Era 41 2.3.1 Impact on the Anishinabe 46 2.4 The British Era 51 2.4.1 Impact on the Anishinabe 57 2.5 The United States Era 60 2.5.1 Unifying the Two Economies 62 2.5.2 Religious Unity 64 2.5.3 Mitigating Conditions 65 2.6 The Northwest Territory 71 2.6.1 Fear of Britain 71 2.6.2 The Factory System 74 2.6.3 Missionaries and Mlssionization 79 2.6.3.1 Trader-Missionary Relations 82 2.6.3.2 Impact on the Anishinabe 84 I I I THE KEWEENAW BAY TO 1849 86 3.1 Introductory Remarks’ 86 3.2 H istory of the Keweenaw Bay 87 vili 3.2.1 The 'Berthkett Affair" 94 3.2.2 Gitshee Iaubance 97 3.2.3 Effect of Euro-American Interference at Keweenaw Bay 101 3.2.3.1 Conservatives and Progressives 103 3.2.3.2 Mixed-Bloods 107 3 .2 .3 .2 .1 Routes by Which Mixed-bloods Participated in White Society 108 3.2.3.2.2 The Declining Role of Mixed-Bloods 110 3.2.3.2.3 Mixed-Bloods and Whites 115 3.2.3.2.4 DisIncorporation of Mixed-bloods and Indians 118 3.3 The Methodist Mission 120 3.4 The Catholic Mission 138 3.4.1 Factors Influencing Baraga's Ministry 139