UNIVERSITY OF LONDON See over for Abstract of Thesis notes on completion Author (full names) ................................ £&•.... A . k r A ................. Title of thesis P .g & fa b * . * T D r ^ . .... L77& I... MA .... .OB..... .<} .^AviC?-.. .O.fe^?AQ>C^....... ................................................................................. Degree .f t .V l v S i................... The Gagauz are a minority living in the southern reaches of the Republic of Moldova. While adhering to the majority religion of Orthodox Christianity, their mother-tongue is a variety of Turkish, a fact that in conjunction with their cultural heritage has shaped their religious identity and transformed their religious practices. The aim of this thesis is to explore Gagauz religion from the perspective of lay religious practice. In doing so I take up the ongoing debate on ‘folk’ or ‘popular’ religion and aim to demonstrate how, in the case of the Gagauz, the academic category of ‘folk religion’ and the field of ‘folk’ religious practice are instrumental in the construction of Gagauz religious identity. This is explored 0 1 1 two levels. Firstly, on the level of the national political, clerical and academic discourse on the origins, ethno-genesis and religion of the Gagauz, and secondly, on the level of practice, examining how Church perspectives and lay agency operate at the micro-level during actual episodes of religious practice. The starting point of this research project is the ‘texts’ of Gagauz religion. Firstly, the way in which the ‘texts’ on Gagauz religion generated by scholarly, ecclesial and national political discourse instrumentalise religious identities in the construction of Gagauz national identity is discussed. This is followed by an exploration of how the ‘primary texts’ of Gagauz religious practice used in worship, healing and prayer shape religious consciousness on the ground. Both sets of ‘texts’ are explored within the wider social, historical and political contexts that underpin and define them. Finally, the role of ‘performance’ of the ‘texts’ in the creation, institutionalisation, and transmission of lay religious practice is considered. Each of these dimensions of text, context and performance highlight the role of language in the contested field of practice of ‘folk religion’ situated between the lay and ‘official’ institutions of Gagauz Orthodoxy. ProQuest Number: 10731392 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10731392 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Notes for Candidates 1 Type your abstract on the other side of this sheet. 2. Use single-space typing. Limit your abstract to one side of the sheet. 3. Please submit this copy of your abstract to the Research Degree Examinations Office, Room NBQ1, University of London, Senate House, Malet Street, London, WC1E 7HU, at the same time as you submit copies of your thesis. 4. This abstract will be forwarded to the University Library, which will send this sheet to the British Library and to ASLIB (Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux) for publication in Index to Theses. For official use Subject Panel/Specialist Group BLLD .......................................... Date of Acceptance B ound By Blissett Bookbinders 020 8992 3965 www.blissetts.com TEXT, CONTEXT AND PERFORMANCE: The Lay Institutions of Gagauz Orthodoxy James Alexander Kapalo Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Department of the Study of Religions School of Oriental and African Studies University of London September 2008 1 Abstract The Gagauz are a minority living in the southern reaches of the Republic of Moldova. While adhering to the majority religion of Orthodox Christianity, their mother-tongue is a variety of Turkish, a fact that in conjunction with their cultural heritage has shaped their religious identity and transformed their religious practices. The aim of this thesis is to explore Gagauz religion from the perspective of lay religious practice. In doing so I take up the ongoing debate on ‘folk’ or ‘popular’ religion and aim to demonstrate how, in the case of the Gagauz, the academic category of ‘folk religion’ and the field of ‘folk’ religious practice are instrumental in the construction of Gagauz religious identity. This is explored on two levels. Firstly, 0 1 1 the level of the national political, clerical and academic discourse 0 1 1 the origins, ethno-genesis and religion of the Gagauz, and secondly, on the level of practice, examining how Church perspectives and lay agency operate at the micro-level during actual episodes of religious practice. The starting point of this research project is the ‘texts’ of Gagauz religion. Firstly, the way in which the ‘texts’ on Gagauz religion generated by scholarly, ecclesial and national political discourse instrumentalise religious identities in the construction of Gagauz national identity is discussed. This is followed by an exploration of how the ‘primary texts’ of Gagauz religious practice used in worship, healing and prayer shape religious consciousness on the ground. Both sets of ‘texts’ are explored within the wider social, historical and political contexts that underpin and define them. Finally, the role of ‘performance’ of the ‘texts’ in the creation, institutionalisation, and transmission of lay religious practice is considered. Each of these dimensions of text, context and performance highlight the role of language in the contested field of practice of ‘folk religion’ situated between the lay and ‘official’ institutions of Gagauz Orthodoxy. Contents Acknowledements 6 Notes on languages, transliteration and places names 8 Glossary of frequently used terms 10 List of Maps 12 Introduction 13 i. The Gagauz of Bessarabia and Othodox Christianity 15 ii. The discourse of ‘folk religion’ 22 iii. On method and methodology 25 iv. On the agency of humans, superhuman powers and language 29 v. Text 33 vi. Context 34 vii. Performance 35 viii. On being in the field 39 ix. Chapterisati on 41 Part 1 1. Historical Narrative and the Discourse on Origins: 43 Constructions of Gagauz Ethnic and Religious Identity 1.1 Migration and Dislocation 44 1.2 The Discourse on Origins, Ethno-genesis and Race 53 1.3 The Assimilation of Historical Narratives and Discourses in 58 the Formation of Gagauz National Consciousness 1.4 Nationhood and Religion in the Post-Cakir Year 66 1.5 The Contested Nature of Gagauz Identity in the Post-Soviet Era 71 2. Liturgy, Language and Vernacularization of Church Orthodoxy 77 2.1. The Liturgy: Observing the Orthodox Faith 78 2.2. The Three Languages of Gagauz Orthodoxy 85 2.3. Gagauz Language Liturgy and Scripture in the Post-Soviet Era 93 Part 2 3. Bn epistoliyayazdi kendi Allah — ‘This letter was written by God 103 himself: Language, Lay Agency and the ‘Surrogate’ Text 3.1. Russian, Moldovan and Gagauz Apocalypticism 105 3.2. Epistoliyas and Apocalyptic Texts in the Gagauz Language 110 3.3. Translations, Translators and Teti'adkas 119 3.4. Epistoliyas and Lay Religious Practice 124 4 4. Dii§tan Allahin lafim sana geldi! — ‘The words of God have come 133 to you in a dream’: The Healing System, Authority and the Church. 4.1. The Traditional Healing System 137 4.2. The Ilaggilar 148 5. Allahin lafgaazinan oknyeerim — ‘1 heal with the dear little words 154 of God’: Healing ‘Text’ and Performance. 5.1. The‘Texts’ Gagauz Healing Practices 157 5.1.1. The Simple Charm 161 5.1.2. ‘Epic’ or Narrative Charms 163 5.1.3. Ratification Formulas: The affirmation of the role of the divine 170 5.2. Ritual Actions, Implements and Substances: The role of the Holy Spirit 173 5.3. Reality, Metaphor, Belief: The presence of spiritual beings in ritual healing 176 5.4. The Orthodox Church on Healing and Magic 181 5.5. The Role of the Monasteries 185 5.6. Gagauz healing texts from the tetradkcis 188 5.7. Agency and the diverse sources of religious authority 192 6. Allah versin! - ‘May God grant it!’: Prayer as Social and 196 Cosmological Performance 6.1. Prayer, Tradition and Agency 202 6.2. Canonical Prayer and Clerical Agency 207 6.3. The Character of Orthodox Prayer 209 6.4. Toast-Prayer and the Social Performance of Cosmological Reality 212 6.5. Citation, Discourse and Memory 217 7. Kim solecek bn molitvayi omt ii sozleyecek dedi Allah — ‘And Allah 225 said whosoever says this prayer will be well blessed’: Archaic Passion Prayers amongst the Gagauz 7.1. The Contours of the Genre of ‘Archaic Prayer’ 226 7.2. Textual Motifs and Formulae 231 7.3. The Closing Formula 241 7.4. Prayer in Context and Performance 245 7.5. Transmission and Reception o f‘Texts’ 248 7.6. Prayer as Performance 250 8. Conclusion 256 9. Appendices 259 10. Bibliography 282 5 Acknowledgements I am enormously grateful to my supervisor, Prof. Paul Gifford, for his patient encouragement, support and advice throughout this project. 1 also owe an immense debt of gratitude to Dr. Vilmos Tanczos, Dr. Zsuzsanna Erdelyi and the late Andras Kristo, who each in their own way, knowingly or unknowingly, inspired my work in this field. I would like to offer my thanks to the following individuals and institutions for their help and -support during my fieldwork in Gagauziya. Firstly, to the late Maria V. Marunievich for the great enthusiasm with which she greeted me and introduced me to Gagauziya on my first visit there in 2004.