/ 4 6 ^7-^- " C^-- £-kA F G$CFLEAVE&W/O.xTH ' NC 1& GUERRILLA AND COUNTERGUERRILLA ACCESSION NO--------- PO REGISTR.. - - WARFARE IN GREECE, 1941 - 1945 by Hugh H. Gardner OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF MILITARY HISTORY Department of the Army Washington, D.C., 1962 GUERRILLA AND COUNTERGUERRILLA WARFARE IN GREECE, 1941 - 1945 by Hugh H. Gardner OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF MILITARY HISTORY Department of the Army Washington, D.C., 1962 This manuscript has been prepared in the Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, for use by the Special Warfare School, Special Warfare Center, Fort Bragg, N.C. Guerrilla and Counterguerrilla Warfare in Greece, 19141 - 19h5 constitutes the first part of a projected volume to con- tain histories of a number of guerrilla movements. In order that material contained in this portion may be made available to the Special Warfare School without delay, the author's first draft is being released prior to being fully reviewed and edited. The manuscript cannot, therefore, be considered or accepted as an official publication of the Office of the Chief of Military History, iii GUERRILA AND COUNTERGUERRILLA WARFARE PART I - GREECE TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I INVASION AND RESISTANCE (1940 - 1942) . .. 1 Introduction . 1 The Geography . 2 The Economy . Ethnic and Political Background . $ Italy and Germany Attack . 6 Greece in Defeat . 9 Development of the Resistance Movement . 12 Appearance of Overt Resistance . l The Guerrilla Organizations . 17 ELAS . 18 EDES . 20 EKKA . ...... • . .. 22 Other Andarte Organizations . 22 Outside Influences on the Development of the Guerrilla Movement . 25 Guerrilla Leadership . 26 Guerrilla Headquarters ... 34 Supply and Headquarters Security . 36 Evacuation of Wounded and Medical Care . 38 Communications and Security . ...... 39 Recruiting . 42 Weapons . .. 46 Training and Discipline . 7 Civilian Support .. ... ........ .. 51 II EARLY OPERATIONS AND LIAISON WITH THE BRITISH (1942) 57 The Occupation . 57 Louros Gorge Ambush ... .... 59 Liaison with the British Middle East Command . 66 British Preparations to Effect Liaison . .. 69 Entry of the Liaison Officers . .. 71 Preparations for the Viaduct Operation . 75 Destruction of the Gorgopotamos Viaduct . 79 After Gorgopotamos . .... 86 III NEW MISSIONS AND ATTEMPTS AT UNIFICATION (1943) . 91 The British Military Mission Remains . 91 Efforts to Achieve Unification . 95 Chapter Page III ELAS and the National Bands Agreement . 98 ELAS General Headquarters . 104 Further Efforts at Unification . 106 Destruction of Asopos Viaduct . 110 Widespread Sabotage . 113 The National Bands Agreement Signed . 116 Establishment of the Joint General Headquarters . 118 Politics and the Neraidha Airstrip . 121 IV REORGANIZATION AND REPRISALS (1943 - 1944) . 128 Reorganization of the German Forces . 128 Reorganization of the Guerrilla Forces . 131 The Italian Surrender . 132 Formation of the Allied Military Mission . 134 The Pinerolo Division Dissolved . 135 Fighting Between EDES and ELAS . 136 German Highway Opening Operations . 137 Counterguerrilla Security Measures . 139 Collaborators and the Security Battalions . 140 Collaboration by Guerrilla Bands . 142 The Plaka Armistice . 145 German Counterguerrilla Measures . 150 German Reprisals Against Civilians . 153 Counterguerrilla Measures in the Peloponnesus . 155 Punitive Expeditions and Massacres . 158 V GUERRILLA AND COUNTERGUERRILLA OPERATIONS (1944). 162 Planning for Operation NOAH'S ARK . 162 Provisional Government for Free Greece . 166 Changes inELAS . 168 The Greek Army Mutiny . 171 Further Territorial Disputes . 172 Government of National Unity . 173 EDES Again Expands ...... ........ 174 Operation STEINADLER (Stone Eagle) . 175 Soviet Liaison Mission . 180 Operation KREUZOTTER (Viper) . 181 EAM/ELAS Change of Heart . 18 VI LIBERATION AND POLITICS (1944 - 1945) . 187 Operation NOAH'S ARK . 187 The Caserta Agreement . 189 The German Exodus . 191 Results of NOAH'S ARK . 193 Maintenance of Public Order . 194 Political Maneuvering in Athens . 196 The Demobilization Controversy . 198 Disorders in Athens . 202 Civil War in Athens . 204 ELAS Operations Outside of Athens . 206 Peacemaking Efforts . 210 The British Offensive . .... .. 211 The Varkiza Agreement . ... 213 vi MAPS Following No. Page 1. Greece - Spheres of Occupation 8 2. The Mount Giona and Viaduct Areas 70 3. Operation STEINADLER 176 h. Operation KREUZOTTER 182 ILLUSTRATIONS GREECE -- A land of rugged mountains 2 Side Elevation of GORGOPOTAMOS Viaduct (Reproduction of blueprint) 76 Side Elevation of ASOPOS Viaduct (Reproduction of blueprint) 110 ASOPOS Viaduct 23 June - Dropped span and wreckage of cantilever support 112 2 July - Debris cleared for erection of south end emergency supports 112 15 July - Repairs in progress. New supports being constructed at north end 112 26 July - Over a month after the sabotage operation. Repairs still incomplete 112 vii PART I - GREECE CHAPTER I INVASION AND RESISTANCE (1940 - 1942) Introduction Just as the Western World is indebted to the Greeks for many clas- sic examples of art and literature, so it is in their debt for classic examples of unconventional warfare. Frequently attacked and continu- ally threatened by powerful neighbors, Greece has often found it exped- ient to resort to unconventional methods of warfare to defend or liber- ate its soil. Although examples of the employment of unconventional warfare can be cited fro many periods of Greek history, no period is of greater interest than the years 1941 to 1950. The history of Greece during World War II and the years immediately following, presents not only examples of guerrilla and counterguerrilla operations, but also clearly illustrates the result of failing to disarm and completely inactivate a guerrilla force at the conclusion of a war. During this brief period a complete cycle of a resistance movement can be traced: the organiza- tion of covert resistance, its development into overt guerrilla war- fare, guerrilla participation in the liberation of the nation, the attempt of the resistance organization to use its guerrilla force to seize the reins of government, the resulting civil war, and the even- tual downfall of the resistance movement. Since much of the Greek resistance movement was initiated or 1 dominated by the Greek Communist Party, the resistance cycle is also of interest in that it shows the standard techniques advocated by the Cominform for taking advantage of a critical situation to establish a Communistic form of government. The story of the fight to thwart Communist domination of Greece is of particular interest to students of United States military history since the accomplishment of the final phase of that fight -- the destruction of the Communist guerrilla forces -- came largely as a result of U.S. economic and military assistance. The Geography Greece occupies that lower extremity of the Balkan Peninsula which juts out into the Mediterranean from the main mass of eastern Europe. The mainland and the many island groups which form an integral part of Greece have an area of approximately 1,000 square miles, of which the islands represent a little less than one-fifth -- about 9,000 square miles. Mountains dominate the entire country, the most important range being the Pindus. An extension of the Balkans, the Pindus Range runs north and south through the western half of the peninsula as far south as the Bay of Corinth. Other smaller mountain groups, outcroppings of the Pindus Range, project into the eastern part of the peninsula and south into the Peloponnesus. The islands, too, are either mountainous or extremely hilly. The mountains of Greece are almost invariably rugged, rocky formations and, although some portions are heavily wooded, much of the mountain country has been almost completely deforested. 2 GREECE - A land of rugged mountains For the purposes of this study, mainland Greece can be convenient- ly divided into five principal areas which are historical as well as geographic entities. The Peloponnesus, the southern extension of the Greek peninsula, is connected to the rest of the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, which is cut by the Corinth Canal. Like the balance of the country, the Peloponnesus is generally mountainous, although it has some coastal plains and a few level valleys scattered throughout the mountains. Central Greece is considered to be that portion extending from the Gulf of Corinth north to the Othrys Mountain Range, which runs east- ward from the Pindus Range to form the southern boundary of Thessaly. Athens, the capital and largest city of Greece, is located in the south- eastern corner of the central area. The long, narrow island of Euboea lies close and parallel to the eastern coast, generally considered as a part of central Greece. While Euboea and the mainland portion are both mountainous, there are some wide valleys and coastal plains. The third area, Thessaly, is a wedge-shaped sector, extending north from the Othrys Range to a line drawn generally from the vicinity of Metsovon northeast to the city of Katerini on the Gulf of Thermaikos on the east coast. The western part of Thessaly is extremely mountain- ous, but the eastern part contains two large basin areas. The fourth mainland area is composed of the district of Epirus, an almost entirely mountainous region which lies between Thessaly and the lonian Sea, and extends from the Gulf of Arta north to Albania. The fifth area is comprised of Macedonia and Greek Thrace. Western 3 Macedonia is almost entirely