Middlesex University Research Repository An open access repository of Middlesex University research http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk Derungs, Klaus-Peter (2017) Unbreakable bones: Christian mission and the resilience of Temi culture. PhD thesis, Middlesex University. [Thesis] Final accepted version (with author’s formatting) This version is available at: https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/21636/ Copyright: Middlesex University Research Repository makes the University’s research available electronically. Copyright and moral rights to this work are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners unless otherwise stated. The work is supplied on the understanding that any use for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. A copy may be downloaded for personal, non-commercial, research or study without prior permission and without charge. 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See also repository copyright: re-use policy: http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/policies.html#copy ‘Unbreakable Bones: Christian Mission and the Resilience of Temi Culture’ Klaus-Peter Derungs OCMS, Ph.D ABSTRACT This thesis is concerned with the Batemi of northern Tanzania and the symbols through which they assign meaning in their world. At the centre of the research lies the inquiry of how the Batemi reproduce their individual and communal identity through practices and beliefs in the context of a modernizing post-colonial nation-state. Interacting amongst themselves and with their immediate neighbours – primarily the Maasai – the Batemi show a remarkable resilience in promoting their own choices which are based on their customs, called gitɛmi. The research is based on a long-term involvement with the Batemi and draws from a multitude of collected empirical material, interviews, participant observation, historical materials, and on the insights gained from discussions with Temi contributors. The investigation combines primary data revealing the Batemi’s insights and interpretations of their culture along with my own reflections and understanding of the significance of core processes that shape Temi self-understanding. The Batemi are often portrayed as an unusually hard case of successful resistance against Christianity and Westernization at a time when the majority of other Tanzanian people groups have undergone significant change after having been affected by Christianity. In the encounter between the Batemi and outside observers (colonial personnel, anthropologists and missionaries), the latter portrayed Temi religion almost exclusively as a set of beliefs in a divine being called Ghambageu. Convinced that Ghambageu provided an opportune analogy to communicate a Christian gospel, the missionaries focused on a comparison between Jesus and Ghambageu in their attempt to evangelize the Batemi. However, this study concludes that the core of Temi religion, and indeed of their culture, is tied up with activities and beliefs surrounding the Kirimo rituals, rather than with the myths of Ghambageu. Furthermore, I suggest that it is this misguided notion of Temi religion which ultimately led to a failure to establish a viable church among the Batemi. The study calls for a reappraisal of the Christian mission approach to traditional African communities like the Batemi, and an invitation to re-evaluate a dogmatic concept of religion in the light of the presented Temi religious phenomenon. ‘Unbreakable Bones: Christian Mission and the Resilience of Temi Culture’ by Klaus-Peter Derungs First Supervisor: Dr Ben Knighton Second Supervisor: Dr Edward Ontita Director of Studies: Dr David Singh A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Middlesex University October 2016 Oxford Centre for Mission Studies 5 DEDICATION To Christine, my wife and a fellow explorer of Temi culture, for the companionship during this long journey, and for her support and love throughout these years. ACKNOWLEDGMENT There are many who contributed to the completion of this research. I owe a particular debt to the following people: To my First Supervisor, Ben Knighton, and Second Supervisor, Edward Ontita, for patiently reading and commenting on the manuscripts and for sharing their vast knowledge about African cultures with me. To the community of the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, faculty, staff, and fellow scholars who have made OCMS a place to feel at home with all the support that comes with it. To the friends, family members, and relatives who have shown interest and relentless support in my research project: My in-laws Dorothea and Wolfram Bunten (who passed away in December 2015), my mother Ruth Derungs (who died in August 2016), my sons Joshua, Raphael, Niklas, and Luka. To Beryl Knotts who hosted me throughout my time in Oxford and shared her wonderful home with me. To Kurt Neck, Schaffhausen, who was always keen to learn something new about the Batemi. To the many who supported our work in Bible translation without whom I would not have been able to complete this project. To the many friends, colleagues, and churches in Tanzania, especially the contributors to the research: Stephen Gaigi, Albert Kaneya, Alfayo Gudodo, and Adam Joakim. The elders of the village of Ebwe, and the many neighbours and friends for their friendship during our time in Butemine. A final thanks goes to my wife Christine who dedicated much time to the transcription of Temi recordings, proofreading, and editing the thesis. i ii CONTENTS DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGMENT ....................................................................................................... I CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... III MAPS .......................................................................................................................... VII PHOTOGRAPHS ............................................................................................................. VII FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... VIII TABLES ...................................................................................................................... VIII GITEMI LANGUAGE AND ORTHOGRAPHY ....................................................................... IX PLACE NAMES (GITEMI AND MAASAI) ........................................................................... XI 1. INTRODUCTION AND STUDY PROCESS ......................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research questions ............................................................................................. 2 1.3 Religion in Africa and Temi religion in particular .............................................. 3 1.4 Definitions of key concepts ................................................................................ 7 1.5 Research methodologies used ........................................................................... 11 1.6 Primary sources ............................................................................................... 14 1.7 Secondary sources ............................................................................................ 17 1.7.1 Robert F. Gray: ‘The Sonjo of Tanganyika’ ............................................ 17 1.7.2 Alfred Schäfer: Unsagbare Identität – Das Andere als Grenze in der Selbstthematisierung der Batemi (Sonjo)................................................. 19 1.7.3 Mika Vähäkangas: Between Ghambageu and Jesus ................................. 21 1.7.4 Vincent Donovan’s letters ....................................................................... 22 1.8 Theoretical considerations and reflexivity ........................................................ 23 1.8.1 Gitemi as language.................................................................................. 26 1.8.2 Anthropological theories ......................................................................... 28 1.9 Significance of the research ............................................................................. 33 1.10 Organization of thesis .................................................................................... 36 2. GEOGRAPHY, ECONOMY, AND DEMOGRAPHY ............................................................ 39 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................