RELATIVE CLAUSES IN DIALECTS OF ENGLISH A TYPOLOGICAL APPROACH Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philologischen Fakultät der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg i. Br. vorgelegt von Tanja Herrmann aus Oberwarmensteinach WS 2002/03 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Bernd Kortmann Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Christian Mair Vorsitzende des Promotionsausschusses der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen, Philosophischen und Wirtschafts- und Verhaltenswissenschaftlichen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Elisabeth Cheauré Datum der Disputation: 1. Juli 2003 2 CONTENTS LIST OF MAPS.................................................................................................................5 LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................5 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS..............................................................6 MARKING CONVENTIONS...........................................................................................7 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................8 2. OBJECT OF STUDY, THEORETICAL BACKGROUND, AIMS 2.1. DEFINITION.......................................................................................................11 2.2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.......................................................................15 2.3. AIMS ...................................................................................................................18 3. MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY 3.1. MATERIAL.........................................................................................................20 3.2. METHODS ..........................................................................................................26 4. RELATED TYPES OF CLAUSES 4.1. Introduction..........................................................................................................28 4.2. TOPICALIZATION STRUCTURES..................................................................28 4.2.1. Topicalization structures resembling adnominal relative clauses: cleft and all-pseudo-cleft .........................................................................29 4.2.2. Adnominal relative clauses resembling topicalization structures: existentials and 'lexically empty' antecedent relative clauses..................32 4.2.3. Topicalization structures resembling nominal relative clauses: pseudo-cleft (and reversed pseudo-cleft).................................................37 4.3. COMPARATIVE CLAUSES..............................................................................37 4.3.1. Comparative clauses resembling adnominal relative clauses .................38 4.3.2. Comparative clauses resembling nominal relative clauses .....................40 4.4. NONFINITE CONSTRUCTIONS ......................................................................41 4.5. BUT-CONSTRUCTIONS ...................................................................................44 5. TYPOLOGY OF RELATIVE CLAUSES 5.1. TYPE OF SUBORDINATION............................................................................45 5.2. LINEAR ORDER OF ANTECEDENT AND RELATIVE CLAUSE ................47 5.3. STRUCTURAL MEANS ....................................................................................48 6. NOMINAL AND SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES 6.1. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES ...................................................................54 6.2. CORRELATIVE DIPTYCHS .............................................................................55 6.3. SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES..............................................................56 6.4. RELATIVE JUNCTURES ..................................................................................57 7. ADNOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES 7.1. DEFINITION OF THE CATEGORY .................................................................59 7.2. PREVIOUS STUDIES/SURVEYS OF AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF RELATIVE MARKERS: Wright's English Dialect Grammar, Lowman Survey, Survey of English Dialects.....................................................................65 3 7.3. AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF RELATIVE MARKERS IN PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS ............................................................................................70 8. IMPLICATIONAL TENDENCIES OF RELATIVE MARKER USAGE 8.1. Introduction..........................................................................................................91 8.2. TOWARD A SCALE/ HIERARCHY.................................................................91 8.3. SCALE/ HIERARCHY OF BROADNESS OF RELATIVE MARKERS..........93 8.4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RELATIVE MARKER USAGE IN TERMS OF THE SCALE/ HIERARCHY ......................................95 8.5. Summary............................................................................................................100 9. RESTRICTIVENESS/ NONRESTRICTIVENESS 9.1. Introduction........................................................................................................102 9.2. RESTRICTIVENESS/ NONRESTRICTIVENESS IN (TRADITIONAL) GRAMMAR .......................................................................................................102 9.3. RESTRICTIVENESS/ NONRESTRICTIVENESS IN DIALECTAL SPEECH.............................................................................................................102 9.4. RESTRICTIVENESS/ NONRESTRICTIVENESS IN INDIVIDUAL REGIONS ..........................................................................................................105 9.5. Summary............................................................................................................109 10. PERSONALITY/ NONPERSONALITY 10.1. Introduction......................................................................................................111 10.2. PERSONALITY/ NONPERSONALITY ACROSS REGIONS .....................111 10.3. Summary..........................................................................................................122 11. PREPOSITION PLACEMENT 11.1. Definition.........................................................................................................123 11.2. PREPOSITION PLACEMENT ACROSS REGIONS ....................................123 12. ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY 12.1. Introduction......................................................................................................127 12.2. INDIVIDUAL RELATIVE CLAUSE FORMATION STRATEGIES...........133 12.3. INTERPRETATION 12.3.1. Standard relative markers who, which, that, and zero.........................137 12.3.2. Nonstandard relative markers what and as: Change in progress in terms of the Accessibility Hierarchy...............................................138 12.4. GENITIVE AVOIDANCE ..............................................................................143 12.5. Summary..........................................................................................................146 13. RESUMPTIVE PRONOUNS 13.1. Introduction......................................................................................................148 13.2. Definition.........................................................................................................148 13.3. PRONOUN RETENTION STRATEGY IN TERMS OF THE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY....................................................................148 13.3.1. (Non)Restrictiveness as a factor..........................................................155 13.4. Summary..........................................................................................................157 13.5. FURTHER EMBEDDED RELATIVE CLAUSES VIA RESUMPTIVE PRONOUNS 13.5.1. Introduction .........................................................................................159 4 13.5.2. UNCONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS VIA RESUMPTIVE PRONOUNS .......................................................................................159 13.5.3. Summary .............................................................................................165 13.6. NONREDUCTION..........................................................................................166 14. WHICH AS 'CONNECTOR'? 14.1. Introduction......................................................................................................168 14.2. 'CONNECTOR' WHICH..................................................................................168 14.3. Summary..........................................................................................................175 14.4. ARE THERE PREPOSED RELATIVE CLAUSES?......................................176 15. POSITION OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE 15.1. Introduction......................................................................................................179 15.2. POSITION OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE ACROSS REGIONS ................179 15.3. Summary..........................................................................................................186 15.4. COPIES............................................................................................................188 16. RÉSUMÉ ................................................................................................................192 APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................................................201 APPENDIX 2 ................................................................................................................207 APPENDIX 3 ................................................................................................................213