DEAF NI-VANUATU AND THEIR SIGNS: A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY BY JACQUELINE GEORGA ISELI A Thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington In fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Linguistics by Thesis Victoria University of Wellington 2018 Abstract This thesis provides the first documentation and description of the signs created and used by deaf individuals in Vanuatu. The specific aims of this research were as follows: to establish the sociolinguistic context experienced by deaf people in Vanuatu; to identify the repertoire and characteristics of signs used by the deaf participants; to compare features of participants’ individual signs with the characteristics of home signs and emerging sign languages; and to consider the degree of similarity and potential similarity of signs between participants and how this reflects individuals’ opportunities for contact with other deaf people and signing interlocutors. The limitations of this study are that field methodology for data collection was developed in situ as conditions allowed. The sociolinguistic context for deaf Ni-Vanuatu confirms that language isolation leads to marginalisation from community and society. The study established that these home sign lexicons were limited in quantity and conceptual range, and that shared background knowledge was essential for comprehension. Overall, 22 handshapes were documented, and the predominant handshapes unmarked. Most participants preferred handling strategy for depicting signs. Some evidence of noun-verb distinction was noted in the repertoire of some participants. However, across this range of formational characteristics, results showed significant individual variations. Furthermore, multiple barriers have precluded development of a shared sign language and any form of deaf community. ii Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Rachel McKee who encouraged me; firstly, in Vanuatu while I was living in the remoteness of Malakula creating the small lexicon; and secondly, in the value of pursuing this research. Rachel has provided invaluable advice and questions to head me in the right directions, particularly when the way ahead seemed rather elusive. Secondly, I would like to thank Volunteer Service Abroad for my two years in Vanuatu. For me it was an amazing opportunity, full of new experiences, and wonderful to meet the people of Vanuatu. Also, my appreciation to Mrs Doriane Naliupis of SANMA Frangipani Association for her support and enthusiasm. Thirdly, I would like to thank my husband, Howard Iseli, for his continuous support during this time to work on my thesis. Finally, my grateful thanks to the remarkable deaf people of Vanuatu who shared their creative home signs with me. iii Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... viii 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Geography, Demographics and Languages of Vanuatu .............................................. 2 1.1.1 Geography ............................................................................................................ 2 1.1.2 Demography ......................................................................................................... 3 1.1.3 Languages ............................................................................................................ 3 1.1.4 Transport and Mobility ........................................................................................ 3 1.1.5 Vanuatu Society and Custom ............................................................................... 4 1.1.6 Housing ................................................................................................................ 4 1.1.7 Families ................................................................................................................ 4 1.1.8 Work ..................................................................................................................... 5 1.1.9 Religion................................................................................................................. 6 1.1.10 Education ............................................................................................................. 6 1.1.11 Status of People with Disabilities......................................................................... 7 1.2 The Situation for Deaf Ni-Vanuatu .............................................................................. 7 1.2.1 Kastom and Language .......................................................................................... 8 1.2.2 Educational Opportunities ................................................................................... 8 1.2.3 Work Opportunities ............................................................................................. 9 1.2.4 Social Contact Between Deaf People ................................................................... 9 1.2.5 Sign Language Training ...................................................................................... 10 2 From Gesture to Sign: The Development of Sign Languages and Signing Communities 12 2.1 From Gesture to Sign ................................................................................................ 12 2.1.1 Gesticulation and Gestures ................................................................................ 12 2.1.2 Signs ................................................................................................................... 14 2.1.3 Mimesis .............................................................................................................. 16 2.1.4 Deixis .................................................................................................................. 16 2.2 Formational Characteristics of Signs ......................................................................... 17 iv 2.2.1 Formational Parameters .................................................................................... 18 2.2.2 Handshapes ........................................................................................................ 18 2.2.3 Movement .......................................................................................................... 19 2.2.4 Location .............................................................................................................. 20 2.2.5 Iconicity .............................................................................................................. 20 2.3 Primary Sign Languages ............................................................................................. 21 2.3.1 Deaf Community Sign Language Types .............................................................. 21 2.3.2 Urban Deaf Community Sign Languages ............................................................ 21 2.3.3 Emerging Deaf Community Sign Languages ...................................................... 22 2.3.4 Village or Rural Sign Languages ......................................................................... 23 2.4 Home Sign and Deaf Isolates ..................................................................................... 26 2.4.1 Home Sign Vocabulary ....................................................................................... 27 2.4.2 Formation and Production of Home Signs ......................................................... 28 2.4.3 Types of Gestures Used by Home Signers ......................................................... 29 3 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 33 3.1 Data Collection and Fieldwork Challenges ................................................................ 33 3.1.1 Materials ............................................................................................................ 34 3.1.2 Locating Participants .......................................................................................... 34 3.1.3 Communication .................................................................................................. 35 3.1.4 Travel .................................................................................................................. 36 3.2 Deaf Participants ....................................................................................................... 36 3.3 Ethics ......................................................................................................................... 39 3.4 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 40 4 Lexical Analysis of Ni-Vanuatu Signs ................................................................................ 43 4.1 Describing the Lexicon .............................................................................................