INSTITUT FÜR KRAFTFAHRWESEN AACHEN Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Henning Wallentowitz Henning Wallentowitz Automotive Engineering II Lateral Vehicle Dynamics Steering Axle Design Editor Prof. Dr.-Ing. Henning Wallentowitz InstitutFürKraftfahrwesen Aachen (ika) RWTH Aachen Steinbachstraße7,D-52074 Aachen - Germany Telephone (0241) 80-25 600 Fax (0241) 80 22-147 e-mail [email protected] internet htto://www.ika.rwth-aachen.de Editorial Staff Dipl.-Ing. Florian Fuhr Dipl.-Ing. Ingo Albers Telephone (0241) 80-25 646, 80-25 612 4th Edition, Aachen, February 2004 Printed by VervielfältigungsstellederHochschule Reproduction, photocopying and electronic processing or translation is prohibited c ika 5zb0499.cdr-pdf Contents 1 Contents 2 Lateral Dynamics (Driving Stability) .................................................................................4 2.1 Demands on Vehicle Behavior ...................................................................................4 2.2 Tires ...........................................................................................................................7 2.2.1 Demands on Tires ..................................................................................................7 2.2.2 Tire Design .............................................................................................................8 2.2.2.1 Bias Ply Tires.................................................................................................11 2.2.2.2 Radial Tires ...................................................................................................12 2.2.3 Force Transmission in circumferential Direction...................................................14 2.2.4 Force Transmission in Lateral Direction ...............................................................19 2.2.4.1 Lateral Forces and aligning Torque by Tire Slip............................................19 2.2.4.2 Lateral Forces and aligning Torques generated by Wheel Camber ..............23 2.2.5 Superposition of lateral Forces and circumferential Forces..................................25 2.2.6 Transient Tire Behavior ........................................................................................27 2.3 Single Track Vehicle Model......................................................................................31 2.3.1 Steady State circular Course Driving....................................................................35 2.3.2 Transient Behavior................................................................................................40 2.3.3 Vehicle as a Control Loop Element ......................................................................45 2.3.3.1 Static Behavior of the controlled Travel Vehicle ............................................45 2.3.3.2 Dynamic Behavior of the Control Travel Vehicle ...........................................46 2.4 Four-Wheel Vehicle Model.......................................................................................53 2.4.1 Model Formulation................................................................................................53 2.4.2 Test Procedures and Assessment Criteria for Vehicle Handling ..........................55 2.4.3 Parametric Study on Steering Behavior (Automobile) ..........................................57 2.4.3.1 Center-of-Gravity Height................................................................................62 2.4.3.2 Center-of-Gravity Position .............................................................................67 2.4.3.3 Roll Axis.........................................................................................................67 2.4.3.4 Anti-roll Suspension Distribution....................................................................69 2.4.3.5 Camber and Toe Angle .................................................................................71 2 Contents 2.4.3.6 Traction (Drive Concept) ...............................................................................78 2.4.3.7 Rear-axle auxiliary Steering ..........................................................................80 2.4.4 Influence of Processes of longitudinal Dynamics on transverse Dynamics..........86 2.4.4.1 Accelerating during Cornering .......................................................................87 2.4.4.2 Load-Alteration during Cornering ..................................................................88 2.4.4.3 Braking during Cornering...............................................................................92 2.4.4.4 Braking on Roadways with Lanes of Different Friction Properties (µ- split) 93 2.5 Steering....................................................................................................................96 2.5.1 Specifications of Steering Systems ......................................................................97 2.5.1.1 Driver related Demands.................................................................................97 2.5.1.2 Vehicle-related Demands ..............................................................................99 2.5.2 Characteristic Values of the Front Wheel Adjustment ........................................100 2.5.3 Steering Kinematics............................................................................................109 2.5.3.1 Static Layout of the Steering Element .........................................................110 2.5.3.2 Real Layout of Steering Elements ...............................................................112 2.5.4 Steering Angle - Steering Torque Diagram.........................................................113 2.5.5 Steering Elasticity ...............................................................................................114 2.5.6 Components of the Steering System ..................................................................115 2.5.6.1 Steering Gearbox without auxiliary Power...................................................116 2.5.6.2 Power Steering............................................................................................118 2.6 Wheel Suspensions................................................................................................122 2.6.1 Basic Concepts of Wheel Suspension................................................................122 2.6.2 Kinematics of Wheel Suspensions .....................................................................124 2.6.2.1 Roll Center...................................................................................................128 2.6.2.2 Braking-Torque and starting-Torque Compensation (anti-dive/anti- squat) 131 2.6.3 Elastokinematics.................................................................................................134 2.6.4 Requirements to be met by Wheel Suspension..................................................135 2.6.4.1 Handling ......................................................................................................136 2.6.4.2 Comfort........................................................................................................138 Contents 3 2.6.5 Rigid Axles..........................................................................................................139 2.6.6 Semi-rigid Axles..................................................................................................143 2.6.7 Independent Suspension....................................................................................147 2.6.7.1 Swing Axles .................................................................................................147 2.6.7.2 Trailing-link Suspension ..............................................................................149 2.6.7.3 Semitrailing-link Wheel Suspension ............................................................150 2.6.7.4 Double-wishbone Suspension.....................................................................153 2.6.7.5 Strut Suspension .........................................................................................156 2.6.7.6 Multilink Wheel Suspensions.......................................................................162 4 Demands on Vehicle Behavior 2 Lateral Dynamics (Driving Stability) 2.1 Demands on Vehicle Behavior Like at all vehicles which are not track-bound, the driver of the motor vehicle has to manage not only the control respectively the regulation of driving speed, but also driving direction. Determination of driving direction by the control activity of the driver contains three cybernetic tasks, Fig. 2.1- 1: 1. From all provided routes, a particular route based on criteria such as time need or distance has to be selected. 2. Within the selected route the desired course has to be defined, whereby information continuously monitored during driving (traffic in the same direction as well as oncoming traffic, signalling systems, routing of the road) are evaluated. 3. The vehicle has to be navigated on the previously defined desired course by its control elements. Fig. 2.1- 1: Cybernetic tasks of the driver in the guidance of a motor vehicle Man undertakes function of a control device in terms of driving stability by the last of this three functions. The vehicle represents the control travel. So interactions between driver action and vehicle response can be understood as operations in a closed control loop, Fig. 2.1- 2. Demands on Vehicle Behavior 5 Fig. 2.1- 2 : Control loop driver - vehicle In this control loop disturbance variables act on the driver (e.g. relative