Beyond Fragility: A Conflict and Education Analysis of the Somali Context Barakat, Connolly, Hardman, Lewis, Lineker, Menkhaus, Rzeszut and Shanks POST-WAR RECONSTRUCTION & Institute for DEVELOPMENT UNIT Effective Education Beyond Fragility: A Conflict and Education Analysis of the Somali Context Barakat, Connolly, Hardman, Lewis, Lineker, Menkhaus, Rzeszut and Shanks POST-WAR RECONSTRUCTION & Institute for DEVELOPMENT UNIT Effective Education ii Beyond Fragility: A Conflict and Education Analysis of the Somali Context Authors’ Declaration This report should be quoted as: Barakat, Connolly, Hardman, Lewis, Lineker, Menkhaus, Rzeszut and Shanks, 2014. This independent report was commissioned by UNICEF; however, the views presented are those of the authors. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations or UNICEF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this report and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily representative of those held by the United Nations or UNICEF. Text © 2014 Post-war Reconstruction & Development Unit, The University of York; Institute for Effective Education, The University of York; United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Photographs Full-page photos © UNICEF Smaller photos © Sultan Barakat Designed and typeset by Gavin Ward Design Associates (www.gwda.co.uk) Acknowledgements iii Acknowledgements This Conflict Analysis forms part of UNICEF’s global Peace Building, Education and Advocacy in conflict-affected contexts programme (PBEA) (2012–2015) operating in 14 priority countries, including Somalia, with its three administrative zones of Somaliland, Puntland and Central South Somalia. A multi-disciplinary research team from the University of York led by Professors Sultan Barakat (Conflict and Recovery Specialist), Frank Hardman (Education Specialist) and Ken Menkhaus (Somalia Conflict Specialist) undertook the complex process of training research teams to gather, review and analyse field data from the three zones over a 9-month period (March–December 2013). The York Team was supported by Daryeel Associates based in Mogadishu, led by Abdi Gama Ghedi. This study was made possible by the support and contributions from various individuals, groups and institutions. Specifically, we would like to thank the Somali communities, teachers, head teachers, civil society organisations, and the representatives of governments, non-governmental organisations, United Nations and bilateral aid agencies, for their participation in the study. We would like to recognize the contribution of Julia Smith and Sansom Milton who provided crucial support during the drafting and editing of the final stages of the report, and are grateful to Sally Clark from the PRDU and Sharmarke Hashi from Daryeel for their administrative support throughout the study. Professor Sultan Barakat Team Leader Director, Post-war Reconstruction & Development Unit, University of York York, March 2014 iv Beyond Fragility: A Conflict and Education Analysis of the Somali Context Research and Analysis Team Professor Sultan Barakat Somaliland Researchers: Team Leader and Conflict Analyst Dr Alexandra Lewis Director, Post-war Reconstruction & Dr Hassan S. Ahmed Development Unit, University of York Dr Osman Warsame Dr Mustafa Othman Dr David Connolly Conflict Analysis Trainer Puntland Researchers Head of Conflict Prevention, Kathryn Rzeszut The Hague Institute for Global Justice Herzi Aynab Burhan Adan Omar Professor Frank Hardman Deputy Team Leader and Education Specialist South Central Researchers Director of Research, Institute for Effective Dr Kelsey Shanks Education, University of York Dr Abdullahi Alhaj Dr Hassan Mohamed Ali Dr Abdullah A. Omar Abdi Jama Ghedi Dr Ahman Alkadir Nur Somali Field Research Team Leader Director, Daryeel Associates, Mogadishu Research Assistants: Bradley Lineker Professor Ken Menkhaus Dr Sansom Milton Somalia Conflict Advisor Julia Smith Department of Political Science, Davidson College Kathryn Rzeszut Security and Gender Specialist Research Fellow, Post-war Reconstruction & Development Unit Contents v Contents Authors’ Declaration ii Part 1: Acknowledgements iii The Conflict, Peace, Research and Analysis Team iv and Situation Analysis Abbreviations and Acronyms viii Chapter Three: Executive Summary 1 A Synthesis of the Findings 23 Background 2 The Somali Conflict 24 Purpose 2 Cross-Cutting Themes 27 Methodology 2 A Theoretical Understanding of Somali Conflict 29 Drivers of Conflict 2 A Synthesis of Findings 30 Educational Challenges 3 Structural Drivers of Conflict 31 Conclusions 4 Proximate Drivers of Conflict 34 Recommendations 4 Current Conflict Trends 35 Prioritising of Youth 4 Attitudes to Violence 4 Nomadic Communities 5 Chapter Four: Curriculum Reform 5 Analysis of South Central Zone 39 Building Capacity within the Education Sector 5 Context 40 Chronology of Conflict 41 Situational Dynamics 42 Chapter One: Location Dynamics 46 Introduction 7 Kismayo 48 Structure of the Report 10 Mogadishu 50 South Galkacyo 52 Baidoa 53 Chapter Two: Dhusamareeb 54 A Composite Approach to a Jowhar 55 Conflict and Education Analysis 13 Beletweyne 56 The Conflict Analysis Approach 14 Conflict Drivers 57 Guiding Principles and Methodology 15 Structural Drivers 57 Guiding Principles 15 Proximate Drivers 62 Methodology 16 Key Conflict Actors 65 Chapter Five: Analysis of Puntland 71 Context 72 Chronology of Conflict in Puntland 75 Situational Dynamics 78 Location Dynamics 79 The Core 80 The Periphery 80 Conflict Drivers 81 Structural Drivers 82 Proximate Factors 89 Cross Cutting Issue: Vulnerable Populations 90 Key Conflict Actors 91 vi Beyond Fragility: A Conflict and Education Analysis of the Somali Context Chapter Six: Part 2: Analysis of Somaliland 97 The Conflict and Education Nexus Context 98 Chronology 99 Situational Dynamics 104 Chapter Seven: Location Dynamics 105 Education and Peacebuilding Maroodijeex 106 in the Somali Context 119 Togdheer 106 Education and Peacebuilding 120 Sanaag 107 Conceptualising the Relationship between Awdal 107 Education and Peacebuilding 121 Sool 107 Theory of Change 122 Summary 108 Addressing Drivers of Conflict through Education 124 Drivers of Peace and Conflict 108 Somali Primary Education 124 Structural Drivers 108 Somali Secondary Education 128 Proximate Drivers 110 Gender Disparities 129 Actors 111 Violence Against Children 129 Business Community 114 Population Demographics 130 Agriculturalists 114 Marginalised Youth 130 Nomads 114 Inequitable Access 131 Women 114 IDPs 131 Youth 114 Conflict and Community Response 132 Gangs and Organised Crime Networks 115 The Conflict and Education Nexus at the Zonal Levels 132 Neighbouring States 115 Conclusions and Recommendations 140 International Community 115 Chapter Eight: Conclusions and Ways Forward 143 Synthesis of the Zonal Analyses 144 South Central Zone 144 Puntland 145 Somaliland 146 Conflict Drivers 146 The Conflict-Education Nexus 148 Governance 149 Schools 149 Resources 149 Teaching 149 Curriculum 149 Lessons Learned 150 Ways Forward 152 Curriculum Support 152 Building Community Resilience 152 Youth Programmes 153 Professional Development of Teachers 154 Recommendations 155 Curriculum Reform 155 Political inclusion 155 Attitudes to Violence 155 Nomadic Communities 155 Monitoring and Evaluation 156 Building Partnerships in Peacebuilding 156 Building Capacity within the Education Sector 156 Contents vii Appendices Appendix A: Data Collection Methodology 160 Phase I: Inception and Initiation 161 Element 1: Identification and Mapping of Existing Conflict/Peace/Situation Analyses of Somalia 162 Element 2: Contextual Analysis of Somaliland, Puntland, and the South Central Zone 162 Element 3: Peace-Building and Education Literature Review 163 Element 4: Preliminary Consultations with UNICEF and Local Partners 163 Element 5: Designing a Conflict/Peace and Situation Analysis Framework 163 Element 6: Preparation of the Training Workshops 164 Phase II: Conflict/Peace/Situation Analyses 165 On-going Consultations 166 Recruitment of Local Data Collection Teams 166 Conflict Analysis and Data Collection Training 166 Training Approach 167 Data Collection 168 Submission and Ongoing Use of the CPSA 170 Challenges and Mitigating Approaches 170 Delays in the Data Collection Phase 170 Sampling 171 Appendix B: Works Cited 173 Appendix C: Works Consulted 181 Appendix D: Glossary of Key Terms 187 Appendix E: Selected Key Interviewees 189 Appendix F: Stakeholders Consulted 191 viii Beyond Fragility: A Conflict and Education Analysis of the Somali Context Abbreviations and Acronyms ABE Alternative Basic Education SAFE School Association for Formal Education AMISOM African Mission for Somalia SCOTT Strengthening Capacity of Teacher Training CPSA Conflict, Peace and Situation Analysis SCA Strategic Conflict Assessment DFID Department for International Development SCZ South Central Zone EMIS Education Management Information System SEDA Somali Education Development Association FENPS Formal Education Network for Private Schools SFG Somalia Federal Government FGM Female Genital Mutilation SMoEHE Somaliland Ministry of Education and Higher Education FPENS Formal Private Education Network in Somalia SNA Somali National Army HEI Higher Education