1 Caitlin Schmelzer “Miracle on Ice”: The Unofficial Battle of the Cold War Spring 2014 2 “Miracle on Ice”: The Unofficial Battle of the Cold War The USSR-US Olympic hockey match during the 1980 Winter Olympics became a symbol of the politicization of the international sports arena and served as a pseudo-battle during the Cold War between capitalist America and communist Russia with the Americans as the victors. First, I will explore the history of Soviet and American athletic programs and their past- politicized athletic experiences in order to prove the notion of sport as a means to air international conflicts. Then I will explain the political tensions occurring between the U.S. and Soviet Union during the 1980 Winter Olympics. Furthermore, I will evaluate the physical nature of hockey against the events of the match. Additionally, I will describe the reactions of the athletes and people of both nations to the contest. Lastly, I will examine the response of Soviet and U.S. leadership to the event, along with the U.S. political exploitation of the American peoples’ morale. Physical Culture in the Soviet Union In order to understand the degree to which the Soviet Union placed political validation on athletics, one needs to have an understanding of the intensity to which the government controlled physical culture throughout the state. 1 I will be focusing on the structure of the program in which the Soviet players of the 1980 Olympic hockey team participated from the 1960’s through the 1980’s. The athletic program was formed on the basis of creating a stronger communist society, one that could prove the supremacy of the socialist ideology, as well as politically validate the Soviet state on an international stage. The USSR held the belief that sport was the dominant medium in which to influence international politics, thus the government initiated a physical 1The references for the entirety of this section: Sport in Soviet Society (207-369); Sports, politics and communism (1-134); Sport Under Communism (47-49) 3 culture program to increase Soviet control of global affairs. The realm of sport up until this time had been recreational activities for factory workers. The state aimed to influence labor productivity through physical exercise; these exercises would rejuvenate the workers, help them fight against physical and mental idleness, and fatigue. By increasing their quality of living, officials believed the workers would increase their production rates. The USSR, experiencing a decrease in health nationwide, decided to implement this physical culture program beyond the factory, into all levels of society. It also believed that the athletic training would provide character training that would nurture the growth of the communist ideology and future leaders of the nation. As a result, the government aimed to increase the number of amateur and professional athletes statewide. Current professionals, labeled “Masters of Sport,” were required to volunteer as coaches, and school or club instructors; unfortunately, this resulted in the performances of recreational athletes being overlooked in order to focus energy and facilities on those athletes with potential. During this time, the state realized sport as a means of social control; by controlling how citizens used their leisure time, it could better utilize physical culture. Therefore, sport became a means in which to morally educate citizens, as well as prepare the entire nation to defend the Motherland, creating both a utilitarian and social role for sport. This revitalized program included all age groups, as well as different programs for each age group. Initially, the age limit for training started at 14, but after a re-evaluation, a new category was added that lowered the age to 10. There were five groups as well as a separate category for service members: 1) “Bold and Skillful” : Boys and Girls aged 10-13 2) “Sporting Reserve” : Boys and Girls aged 14-15 3) “Strength and Courage” : Boys and Girls aged 16-18 4 4) “Physical Perfection” : Men aged 19-39; Women aged 19-34 5) “Fitness and Health” : Men aged 40-60; Women aged 35-55 The focus of the first two categories was to introduce sport into daily life as well as nurture any talent that could lead to international success. These age groups participated mainly through physical education classes, which aimed to improve the future health of the nation through a nationwide introduction of physical exercise into schools. The third age group focused on military training; these students had to pass a civil defense test, and endure gas mask training, as well as rifle shooting. For these tests, there was a point system created to assess performance; students had a minimum amount of points needed in order to pass, though it was universal knowledge that merely achieving minimum scores was not acceptable. Each student was given one year of training in order to reach the pass mark; in addition, each student had certain academic requirements to uphold: 1) Each student must be knowledgeable in “Physical Culture and Sport in the USSR.” 2) Each student must know and adhere to the rules for personal and public hygiene. 3) Each student must know the basic rules of civil defense and be able to wear a gas mask for one hour. 4) Each student must be able to explain the importance of, and to perform a set of, morning exercises, such as track and field, cross-country skiing, swimming, pull-ups, rifle firing, and hiking. The students trained in this category were expected to either become service members or work in factories. The fourth age group included those who chose to work in the factories. The previous physical training, as well as the exercises maintained at this point, would decrease the number of absences at work due to illness, allow workers to be more physically and mentally vigilant, 5 provide them with the energy necessary to handle changing technology, and increase productivity. This meant the state could guarantee that free time was being spent in a healthy and officially accepted manner. Those students from the third age group choosing to become service members would then enter the “Soldier-Sportsman” program; a program aimed at maintaining the physical and mental health, as well as assuring military readiness of the Soviet army. The fifth category was created in order for those citizens past the age for military participation to contribute to the physical culture movement and improve their health; those individuals that were older than the approved age limit could participate with doctor’s permission. However, all participants in every age group were expected to partake in competitions, nationally and internationally, to help achieve the main goal of socialist supremacy. Athletes most often did this by achieving “Master of Sport” status, which required athletes to perform on the same level with current world achievements and records. The only higher status was “Master of Sport, International Class,” which was awarded for success in Olympic, World or European championships. The Soviet Ice Hockey team was the first team to achieve this class at the World Championships in 1965. Once an individual received the “Master” status, the USSR national sports committee presented them with a badge and certificate, as well as a monthly allowance. However, this status came with responsibilities: they had to adhere to the sporting code of ethics, instruct and train others in physical culture, improve the cultural and political standards of the Soviet Union, compete nationally and internationally for the state, and submit to medical examinations. If an individual did not adhere to these rules, they would be stripped of their title, athletics rankings, and awards. One could also lose his or her title by accepting illegal payments, participating in fixed matches or by behaving in an unacceptable manner in public or during matches. 6 Intensive training and increased athletic talent led to the institution of professional sportsmen. One of the most extensive implementations of that idea was the identification of physical prowess at an early age. The main purpose was to identify those children with potential to become champions with minimal training time. The government provided separate funding for those promising athletes that would offer experienced trainers, superior facilities, and a rigorous training plan, though it was less intensive than the process used by the Chinese. The different levels of physical education are as follows: 1) Children’s or youth schools: resembling that of American after-school sporting programs2 2) Schools of higher sports skills: a more intensive training schedule for athletes who show increasing talent capable of international success 3) Sports boarding schools The Soviet government demanded these boarding schools generate Olympic victors as a means to prove national strength against capitalist powers. Some schools focused their attention on one sport, while others had up to ten; however, the schools could only have training programs for Olympic sports with the exception of chess. Training athletes in sports that could not garner international attention would have been considered useless. Most children would begin between ages 7-12 and would remain at the school until the age of 18. Each child had to be invited to attend a boarding school; an invitation usually came upon exemplary performances during school games. Each invitee had to participate and pass a 10-day entrance exam to assess physical endurance and determine potential for talent growth; however, a poor academic history could prevent admission. Upon entrance, younger students would start focusing 12 hours a week on sports, while older students could spend up to 23 hours a week training in their sport. The USSR 2 Ice hockey had a separate youth school for gifted boys ages 6-7. 7 Ministry of Education provided funding for the schools for all expenses, allowing the children to receive a free education.